Child Development Final Exam Study Sheet PDF

Child Development Final Exam Study Sheet Date: Friday, December 13, 2:30 pm - 4:30 pm; MACN 105 Format: The exam will involve 70 MC and T/F Questions 1. Week 7 - Physical Development in Early Childhood Chapter 8 and lecture material 2. Week 7 - Cognitive Developme...

Child Development Final Exam Study Sheet Date: Friday, December 13, 2:30 pm - 4:30 pm; MACN 105 Format: The exam will involve 70 MC and T/F Questions 1. Week 7 - Physical Development in Early Childhood Chapter 8 and lecture material 2. Week 7 - Cognitive Development in Early Childhood Chapter 9 and lecture material 3. Week 8 - Social and Emotional Development in Early Childhood Chapter 10 and lecture material 4. Week 9 - Physical Development in Middle Childhood Chapter 11 and lecture material 5. Week 10 - Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood Chapter 12 and lecture material 6. Week 11 - Social and Emotional Development in Middle Childhood Chapter 13 and lecture material 7. Week 12 - Developmental (Childhood) Trauma Lecture material ----------------------- Week 7: Physical Development in EARLY Childhood Chapter: 8 PHYSICAL GROWTH Quick Facts: - The human body slows after the first TWO years and the child's body becomes more streamlined The wide range of growth: - Individual differences become more apparent - More adult-like proportions - Loss of body fat compared to infants Skeletal changes: - New “epiphyses” or growth centers in which cartilage hardens into bone and emerge  - “Epiphyses” are the rounded ends of long bones in the body, such as those in the arms (humerus) or legs (femur) and are crucial for bone growth and joint function Structure 1. Spongy Bone: The interior of the epiphysis is composed of spongy (trabecular) bone, which is lightweight but strong and contains red bone marrow, responsible for blood cell production. 2. Articular Cartilage: Smooth, hyaline cartilage covers the outer surface of the epiphysis at joint regions, reducing friction and absorbing shock during movement. Function 1. Bone Growth: In growing individuals, the epiphysis contains the epiphyseal plate (growth plate), a layer of cartilage that allows for longitudinal bone growth. After growth ends, this plate is replaced by bone tissue, forming the epiphyseal line. 2. Joint Movement: The shape and cartilage covering facilitate smooth articulation with adjacent bones. Significance in Development - Epiphyses play a key role in bone growth during childhood and adolescence. - In adults, they help maintain joint integrity and function Teeth: - All primary teeth are in by 3 years old - While all of the primary ones start to be lost around 5 to 6 years old BRAIN DEVELOPMENT Between ages 2 to 6, the brain is: - 80% of adult weight by age 3 - 90% adult weight by age 5 - Synaptic pruning continues, along with myelination - Corpus callosum becomes more denied and better able to transmit messages from one hemisphere to the other - More efficient functioning and specialization of regions of the brain start to facilitate better physical coordination, perception, attention, memory, language, logical thinking, and imagination - Memory starts to work better  - Between ages 8 to 10 cognitive functions are increasingly localized in the distinct neural systems - The prefrontal cortex experiences rapid growth that increases executive functioning skills Inner Brain: - The hippocampus controls memory and images of space - The amygdala controls novelty and emotional information (better capacity in terms of perceptual-motor coordination) - The cerebellum controls balance and control of body movements Significant growth and maturation in areas of the brain: Hippocampus Corpus callosum Amygdala Pituitary gland Reticular formation Cerebellum All these structures undergo considerable development during early childhood - also shown in the pituitary gland, which secretes hormones that control the growth system MOTOR DEVELOPMENT: Gross motor - As children's heads start to align in proportions to their bodies, they soon start to become less top-heavy - Their center of gravity will start to shift downward, which helps improve their balance - Upper and lower body skills come into more refined actions - Greater ability in ball-throwing and catching abilities - As the physical body matures and the brain grows and develops, motor skills become more diverse and intricate Center of gravity: - More balance Engage in more complex motor skills: - Running - Jumping  - Skipping - Throwing - Swinging By ages 5 to 6 - Run easily and can change directions - With ease (2-3 don’t bend their legs) - Hop long distance, one food, alternative feet (2-3 hop a few times on one foot) - Step into a throw rotating upper body to help propel the ball (2-3 forearm stiff) Individual differences in motor skills - Taller and more muscular bodies move more quickly and acquire skills earlier - Social pressures channel children into activities Gender differences: - Boys are ahead in skills requiring power and force - Girls take advantage in fine motor skills and in skills requiring good balance and foot movement Sex differences in motor skills - Generally no major difference in height and weight - How much do you think this is due to socialization and society? Males - Sometimes more muscular - Force and power - May have an advantage with strength - Running and throwing Females - Sometimes have better coordination of movements of limbs - Balancing on one foot, hopping, skipping - Sometimes more fine motor coordination - Fastening buttons and printing Fine motor skills - Significant gains in the development of complex fine motor skills - More dexterity Precise and delicate - Self-help skills  Dressings Eating Shoe tying - Gripping Use varied grips depending on the tasks More developed by the end of early childhood - Handedness About 90% right-handed Early printing - Scribbling No initial distinction between writing and drawing - Exposure and experimentation Environmental - Distinct features of print Symbolic functions (picture-like devices) Often involves their name - The writing stands for language Between ages 4 to 6 Alphabet letter DEVELOPMENT OF DRAWING - Children’s ability to draw increases significantly as fine motor skills develop increases - Scribbles 2 years of age 20 basic scribbles - Shape stage 3 years old can do the 6 basic shapes - Design stage 3 to 4-year-olds can combine shapes - Pictorial stager 4 to 5 years old recognizable objects Cultural variations in drawing - Drawing skills vary across cultures - Some cultures have rich artistic traditions and highly value artistic competence More exposure More modeling More discussion - Some cultures are more focused on other skills - Cross-cultural research indicates that children benefit from adult guidance in learning to draw NUTRITION AND HEALTHY EATING Eating less per KG of body weight than in earlier periods of development Quantity depends on various factors (size, activity level, appetite, age, growth rate) Healthy Diet Variety Limit processed foods Encourage children to decide on the quantity Nutrition-related concerts:  Childhood obesity or malnutrition (affluence) Food insecurity Access to culturally significant foods Supporting children in developing healthy eating habits DO’S: - Allow children to select amount a variety of healthy food options - Allow children to eat foods in any order - Offer new foods one at a time and in small amounts - Offer new foods more than once - Spend mealtimes talking about topics of interest to the child (ren) and family as a whole - Create routines around mealtimes - Plan meals and snacks DO NOT: - Force children to eat all the food on their plate - Spend mealtimes talking about what the child is or is not eating - Use food as a reward or punishment - Avoid making food or meals a negative experience for children Can lead to poor eating habits or becoming aversion to eating - can follow a child throughout their life SLEEPING HABITS - Sleep contributes to body growth - Sleep difficulties can be associated with cognitive performance (attention, speed of thinking, memory, intelligence), fear and anxiety, anger, and aggression - Can also contribute to familiar stress - Sleepwalking and night terrors tend to run in families suggesting a genetic influence Possible challenges: Difficulty falling asleep Nightmares Sleepwalking Night terrors ILLNESSES AND CHALLENGES Chronic illnesses - A variety of chronic health conditions that children can live with such as asthma, juvenile diabetes, cancer - Asthma is the most chronic illness of childhood - Chronic health conditions in children may affect the daily lives of children and their families Injuries and accidents - Unintentional child injuries are the leading causes of childhood mortality in industrialized nations - Young children are eager to explore but due to cognitive development cognitive they may not understand the need to be safe in all situations (risky play) - Risky play can help children develop risk management skills and reduce injuries Some concerns may be: Vehicle accidents Drowning Poisoning Cycling Firearms Fires Week 7: Cognitive Development in EARLY Childhood Chapter: 9 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT - During early childhood, most children build on the cognitive skills developed in infancy and toddlerhood - Cognitive development during early childhood includes skills such as pre-reading, language, vocabulary, an numeracy - Cognitive development in early childhood is strongly connected to the level of success that the child will experience later in life - Piaget, Vygotsky, and information processing provide the main details of cognitive development in early childhood Piaget's four stages  STAGE APPROXIMATE AGE CHARACTERISTICS Sensorimotor Birth to age 2 Infants' knowledge of the world is based on senses and motor skills Preoperational thought 2 to 7 years old The child learns how to use symbols, such as words and numbers, to represent aspects of the world Concrete operational 7 to 11 years old The child understands and applies logical operations to experiences Formal operational Adolescence and beyond Adolescents or adults think abstractly Piaget's preoperational stage of cognitive development - 2 to 7 years of age - As children move from the sensorimotor to the preoperational stage, representational activity increases cognitively - The use of symbols increases Symbolic function Symbolic or pretend play Theory of the mind - However, Piaget felt children during this stage could not yet think logically Key characteristics EGOCENTRISM CONVERSATION APPEARANCE AS REALITY - As in three - Centration - Believe the object’s mountains - Irreversibility appearance tells what the object is really like Ecocentrism - Focus only on their viewpoint or perspective - Unable to think about others' symbolic views from one's own - Piaget believed preschoolers' egocentric bias prevents them from accommodating, or reflecting on and revising their limited reasoning  - Results in animism Animism: - Piaget concluded that children in preoperational thought believed that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and the object have feelings, intentions and emotions - Also children in this stage attribute their thoughts and feelings to objects for example a stuffed animal might be sad Magical thinking: - Children 3 to 4 years of age often think that magical processes such as wishing - Magical thinking declines in children ages 4 to 8 Conservation - Piaget also developed the term conservation about children cognitive development - Children at the preoperational stage cannot yet conserve and they think that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes Due to two aspects 1. Centration: focusing on one aspect of a situation while neglecting other important features 2. Ivversibility: an inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse directions, returning to the starting point Piaget and Education - Three educational principles derived from Piaget continue to influence teachers and classrooms: Discovery learning involves opportunities for spontaneous interaction with the environment Sensitivity to children’s readiness to learn builds on children’s current thinking, challenging their incorrect ways of viewing the world Acceptance of individual differences means planning activities for individual children and small groups Piaget May Have Not Got It Quite Right - As with Sensory Operations, Piaget may have underestimated the preoperational child  - Neo-Piagetian theorists combine Piaget’s stage approach with the information-processing emphasis on task-specific change With more sophisticated studies, researchers have found the following with children 4-5 years of age: More recent evidence on egocentrism More recent evidence on animism More recent evidence on conservation Vygotskys sociocultural theory and early childhood - In Vygotsky’s view, child and social environment collaborate to mould cognition in culturally adaptive ways Vygotsky viewed private speech as the foundation for all higher cognitive processes: Preschool children use private speech to talk to themselves, especially with challenging tasks As children age, private speech becomes internalized as silent, inner speech - More Knowledgeable Other (MKO), Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), and Scaffolding - Key aspects of cognitive development during early childhood Vygotsky and early childhood education Vygotskian classrooms promoted assisted discovery Teachers scaffold children's learning with explanations, demonstrations, and verbal prompts Children with varying abilities engage in peer collaboration, working together in groups Challenges to Vygotsky’s ideas Verbal dialogues are not the only way a child learns Vygotsky did not take the key cognitive aspects into account in the contribution to socially transmitted higher cognitive processes - Such as perception, attention, memory, and problem-solving Information processing in preschoolers - During early childhood, children experience dramatic improvements in the following key cognitive processes Attention Memory  Executive functioning Attention - Children 2 to 5 years of age develop gradual growth in skills in balancing perceptual input with directed attention - More focused attention - Also, develop basic strategies for attention Memory - Autobiographical memory - The memory of significant events and experiences of own life - Begins in preschool years - Affected by: Parental reminiscing style Children's level of cognitive development Understanding of self in time Quality of attachment between parents and child - Between 3 to 6 years, children’s increased cognitive development enables changes in long-term memory 1. Episodic memory - recollection of events in one's life 2. Semantic memory - general knowledge - More elaborate and spontaneous scripts are used to help a child remember routines events Counting - Involves the following cognitive skills One-to-one principles - each item is labelled with one number name Stable order principle - objects counted are ordered in the same sequence Cardinality principle - last number name tells you how many - by 5 children apply these counting principles with as many as nine objects - Dont always count accurately Executive functioning - Involves higher level skills that are not fully developed until adolescence Gains in early childhood:  Increased ability to inhibit impulses and postpone action while focusing on a different task Increasingly able to plan, map out a sequence of actions and evaluate consequences to adjust their plan Greater ability to develop more complex play and problem-solving Gains in attention and memory support executive functioning Additional cognitive skills - theory of the mind - Language and Verbal Reasoning: Enhanced ability to understand and articulate mental states - Executive Function: Supports self-regulation and the ability to consider others' perspectives - Make-Believe Play: Encourages imagination and role-playing, fostering perspective-taking - Social Interaction: Exposure to diverse viewpoints through interaction with peers and adults Limitations of Young Children’s Theory of Mind: - Passive View of the Mind: Children see the mind as simply holding information, not actively processing it - Underestimation of Mental Activity: They fail to grasp the complexity of others’ mental processes - Poor Inferencing: Difficulty understanding what others know or think, leading to egocentric views Language Development in Early Childhood: - Dramatic Growth: Increased storytelling abilities with richer detail - Improved temporal thinking and discussion of past, present, and future events - Emotional Vocabulary: Use of words to describe basic feelings Social Use of Language: Enhanced conversational skills with peers. Grammar Proficiency: - By age 4, children adapt speech to suit their listener’s age, gender, and social status How Children Acquire Grammar: - During the preschool years, language skills increase dramatically - More able to tell stories with increased detail - Better able to think about the past, present, and future and talk about events  - Incorporate words for basic feelings into their language - Better able to use language socially with friends - Increase in ability to use grammar - By age 4, adjust their speech to fit age, gender, social status of their listeners 1. Cognitive skills for grammar are similar to skills for learning rules 2. Primarily through imitation of adult speech and media 3. Conversational Turn Taking - Adult scaffolding - Spontaneous turn-taking - Conversational convention Week 8: Social and Emotional Development in Early Childhood Sense of development: the “who am i?” - Underlies a considerable amount of development dyring the preschool years - Involves children wondering about the “self” - May affect children for the rest of their lives Forming a sense of “self” in childhood - Self is strongly influenced by how preschool children believe they are regarded by others - key caregiving relationships - Greaeer understanding and internalization of parents values, expectations, and belfs - Autobiographical personal narrative (working model og self) shaped by early shared recounting of daily experiences with parents or caregivers Parents and caregivers enhance positive narratives or negatives narratives and shape children's views of self