DEP 3053: Psychology of Human Development Exam 2 Study Guide (Fall 2024 PDF)

**DEP 3053: Psychology of Human Development -- Exam 2 Study Guide (Fall 2024)** **Chapter 7: Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood** **1. Brain Development** - **Left and Right Hemisphere Development**: - The brain undergoes rapid development during early childhood....

**DEP 3053: Psychology of Human Development -- Exam 2 Study Guide (Fall 2024)** **Chapter 7: Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood** **1. Brain Development** - **Left and Right Hemisphere Development**: - The brain undergoes rapid development during early childhood. Specialization of the two hemispheres (lateralization) becomes more pronounced, with the left hemisphere generally responsible for tasks such as language, logic, and analytical processing, while the right hemisphere is involved in spatial abilities, creativity, and visual-motor tasks. The balance of these hemispheres is crucial for proper cognitive and physical development. - The process of **myelination** (the formation of myelin sheaths around neurons) improves the speed and efficiency of information processing in the brain. - **Handedness**: - Handedness reflects the dominance of one hemisphere over the other. About 90% of individuals are right-handed, with the left hemisphere typically controlling language in right-handers. Handedness is influenced by both genetics and environment, and some theories suggest that left-handedness may be linked to a more diverse neural organization. **2. Piaget's Preoperational Stage (Ages 2-7)** - **Make-Believe Play**: - A vital aspect of cognitive development, make-believe play helps children practice roles, language, and social rules. It encourages **symbolic thinking**, where objects can represent something else (e.g., a block is used as a car). This type of play fosters imagination and the ability to separate reality from imagination. - **Dual Representation**: - Dual representation is the ability to understand that a symbolic object is both an object in itself and a symbol for something else. This skill typically emerges around age 3 and is essential for tasks like reading maps or understanding models. - **Limitations in Thinking**: - **Egocentrism**: Young children in this stage have difficulty seeing the world from others' perspectives. Piaget's famous **Three Mountains Task** demonstrated that children could not yet distinguish their own viewpoint from that of others. - **Inability to Conserve**: Conservation refers to understanding that certain physical properties (e.g., volume, number, mass) remain the same despite changes in form or appearance. Preoperational children often fail at conservation tasks, such as pouring liquid between differently shaped containers. - **Lack of Hierarchical Classification**: This refers to the child's difficulty in understanding categories and subcategories. For example, a child might struggle to understand that there are more flowers than red flowers when shown a set of mixed-color flowers. **3. Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory** - **Scaffolding**: - This refers to the support that adults provide to children in learning new tasks. As children gain competence, the adult gradually reduces the level of help. This dynamic assistance helps children perform tasks they would otherwise be unable to achieve independently. - **Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)**: - Vygotsky emphasized the range of tasks that children can perform with the help of a more knowledgeable other but cannot yet accomplish alone. Learning within this zone leads to cognitive development. - **Private Speech**: - Private speech, or talking to oneself, plays a crucial role in self-guidance and problem-solving. Vygotsky argued that private speech helps children regulate their behavior and thought processes. As children grow older, this external dialogue becomes internalized. **4. Information Processing** - **Executive Function**: - Executive function includes skills such as attentional control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. These skills are vital for problem-solving, planning, and self-regulation, and they improve as the prefrontal cortex develops during early childhood. - **False Belief Understanding**: - Around age 4, children begin to understand that others can hold beliefs that are false or different from reality. This marks an important step in the development of Theory of Mind, the ability to understand others' mental states. **5. Memory** - **Recognition vs. Recall**: - **Recognition memory** involves identifying previously encountered information, while **recall** requires retrieving information without cues. Recognition is generally easier for young children than recall. - **Scripts and Autobiographical Memory**: - **Scripts** are generalized frameworks for how events typically unfold (e.g., eating at a restaurant). These help children remember familiar sequences of events. **Autobiographical memory**, which refers to long-lasting memories of personal experiences, becomes more refined as children's language and self-concept develop. - **Metacognition and Metamemory**: - Metacognition is thinking about one's own thinking, while metamemory refers to the understanding of how memory works. As children grow older, they develop better strategies for remembering and monitoring their cognitive processes. **6. Language Development** - **Vocabulary and Grammatical Development**: - Vocabulary rapidly expands during early childhood. Children also begin to grasp complex grammatical rules, though they may overgeneralize these rules (e.g., "goed" instead of "went"). - **Supporting Language Development**: - **Recasts** are when adults restructure incorrect speech into a more correct form. **Expansions** occur when adults elaborate on a child's speech to provide more information. **7. Theory of Mind (Metacognition)** - **Theory of Mind** refers to the ability to attribute mental states---such as beliefs, intents, desires, and emotions---to oneself and others. It is crucial for understanding that others have perspectives different from one\'s own, which develops significantly between ages 3 and 5. **8. Factors Contributing to Individual Differences in Cognitive Development** - Factors include genetic influences, parenting styles, socioeconomic status, and the quality of early education. Cultural differences also shape cognitive development, particularly in terms of problem-solving approaches and socialization practices. **Chapter 8: Emotional and Social Development in Early Childhood** **1. Erikson's Psychosocial Theory** - **Initiative vs. Guilt**: - This stage (ages 3-6) focuses on the balance between taking initiative and dealing with guilt over unsuccessful efforts. Children who successfully navigate this stage develop a sense of purpose, while those who do not may feel overly guilty and lack confidence in their abilities. **2. Self-Concept and Self-Esteem** - **Self-concept** refers to the set of attributes, abilities, and attitudes that an individual believes define them. In early childhood, self-concept is often based on observable characteristics (e.g., "I have brown hair"). - **Self-esteem** is the evaluative aspect of the self. Young children typically have high self-esteem because they are just beginning to compare themselves to others. **3. Emotional Development** - **Self-conscious Emotions**: - Emotions like shame, guilt, and pride emerge during early childhood as children develop a sense of self. These emotions require an understanding of social rules and expectations. - **Emotional Self-regulation**: - The ability to manage and adjust emotional reactions in various situations improves significantly during early childhood. This is important for developing positive social relationships and adapting to new environments. - **Empathy and Sympathy**: - **Empathy** involves understanding and sharing another person's feelings, while **sympathy** refers to feelings of concern or sorrow for another person. Children who develop these skills are more likely to engage in prosocial behavior, such as helping or comforting others. **4. Peer Relations** - **Peer Sociability in Play**: - Play becomes an important context for learning social skills. Different types of play include **nonsocial activity** (e.g., watching others play), **parallel play** (playing near others with similar toys but not interacting), **associative play** (sharing toys and interacting but not coordinating activities), and **cooperative play** (working together toward a common goal). - **Cognitive Play Categories**: - Children engage in different kinds of play based on their cognitive development: functional play (simple, repetitive movements), constructive play (building or making something), and pretend play (imagining roles and scenarios). - **Parental Influences on Peer Sociability**: - Parents indirectly influence peer relationships by arranging playdates, modeling social behavior, and coaching children on how to interact with peers. **5. Moral Development** - **Piaget's Stages of Moral Judgment**: - Piaget identified two stages of moral development: **heteronomous morality** (rules are seen as fixed and unchangeable) and **autonomous morality** (rules are viewed as flexible, and fairness is considered). - **Social Cognitive Theory of Morality**: - This theory focuses on the role of reinforcement, punishment, and modeling in shaping moral behavior. Children learn moral behavior by observing others and through feedback from their own actions. - **Parental Influences on Moral Development**: - Parents shape children's moral understanding by discussing moral issues, encouraging empathy, and providing consistent discipline. **6. Aggression** - **Proactive and Reactive Aggression**: - **Proactive aggression** is goal-oriented and used to achieve a desired outcome, while **reactive aggression** is a defensive response to a perceived threat or frustration. - **Forms of Aggression**: - Aggression can be physical (harming others through physical force), verbal (insults, threats), or relational (damaging someone's social relationships). - **Media Violence**: - Exposure to violent media has been linked to increased aggression in children. Repeated exposure can desensitize children to violence and make aggressive behavior seem more acceptable. **7. Gender Stereotypes** - **Gender Typing**: - Gender typing refers to the process by which children acquire gender-specific behaviors and attitudes. This is influenced by parents, peers, and the broader culture. - **Gender Schema Theory**: - According to this theory, children actively construct gender schemas, which are mental representations of gender norms and expectations. These schemas influence how children process information and behave. **8. Child-Rearing Styles** - **Authoritative Parenting**: - High in warmth and control. Parents set clear standards but are responsive to their children's needs. This style is associated with positive outcomes such as self-confidence and social competence. - **Authoritarian Parenting**: - High in control but low in warmth. Parents expect obedience without question, which can lead to children being anxious, withdrawn, or overly dependent on authority. - **Permissive Parenting**: - High in warmth but low in control. Parents are indulgent and do not set firm boundaries. This can result in children lacking self-discipline and being more prone to behavior problems. - **Uninvolved Parenting**: - Low in both warmth and control. Parents are disengaged and provide little guidance or support. Children raised with this style may struggle with self-esteem and academic achievement. **Chapter 9: Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood** **1. Common Health Problems** - Middle childhood (ages 6-12) is a relatively healthy period, but certain health problems are common, such as obesity, asthma, and accidental injuries. Obesity can result in social stigma, low self-esteem, and long-term health problems. Asthma is often exacerbated by environmental factors like pollution. **2. Development of Play** - **Dominance Hierarchy**: - In middle childhood, peer groups often develop a dominance hierarchy, where individuals' social power and influence are ranked. This hierarchy helps reduce conflict and establishes order in social interactions. **3. Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7-11)** - **Conservation**: - Children in the concrete operational stage can now understand that certain properties (e.g., volume, number) remain constant despite changes in appearance, marking a key cognitive shift from the preoperational stage. - **Classification**: - The ability to group objects into hierarchies of classes and subclasses improves. Children can now sort items more logically. - **Seriation**: - The ability to arrange objects in a sequence based on a quantitative property, such as size or weight, becomes possible. **4. Gains in Executive Function** - **Direct and Indirect Training**: - Executive function can be improved through activities that encourage self-regulation, planning, and memory strategies. Both direct instruction and informal practice contribute to these gains. - **ADHD**: - Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Children with ADHD often struggle with executive function tasks and may benefit from behavioral interventions, medications, and accommodations in school. - **Planning and Memory Strategies**: - Memory strategies such as rehearsal, organization, and elaboration are increasingly used during middle childhood. Planning also improves, as children become better at thinking through the steps required to achieve a goal. **5. Intelligence Testing** - Intelligence tests (e.g., IQ tests) assess a range of cognitive abilities, including verbal reasoning, working memory, and problem-solving. These tests are used to identify giftedness, learning disabilities, and to guide educational interventions. However, they are also criticized for cultural bias. **6. Language Development** - **Topic-focused vs. Topic-associating Communication**: - **Topic-focused** communication is common in Western cultures, where conversations are linear and focused on one subject. **Topic-associating** communication is more narrative and links multiple topics together. - **Bilingualism**: - Learning two languages can have cognitive benefits, such as greater mental flexibility and improved problem-solving skills. However, it may also result in delays in language development initially. **Chapter 10: Emotional and Social Development in Middle Childhood** **1. Erikson's Theory: Industry vs. Inferiority** - In this stage, children are developing a sense of competence and ability in tasks valued by society. Success in this stage leads to feelings of industry (a sense of mastery), while failure can result in feelings of inferiority. **2. Self-Understanding** - **Self-Concept**: - Self-concept becomes more refined in middle childhood, incorporating both positive and negative traits. Children start comparing themselves to peers (social comparison). - **Self-Esteem**: - Self-esteem declines in the early school years as children begin to engage in social comparison, but it usually stabilizes and rises again in later childhood, especially if children receive support from parents and peers. **3. Achievement-Related Attributions** - Children develop beliefs about the causes of their successes and failures. Those who attribute success to effort rather than innate ability are more likely to persist in the face of challenges. **4. Emotional Development** - **Self-Conscious Emotions**: - Emotions such as pride, guilt, and shame become more sophisticated. Children can experience these emotions based on internalized standards rather than just external feedback. - **Emotional Understanding and Self-Regulation**: - Emotional understanding deepens as children become better at recognizing others' emotions and the reasons behind them. Emotional self-regulation also improves, allowing children to manage their feelings more effectively. **5. Moral Development** - **In-Group and Out-Group Biases**: - Children develop a stronger sense of group identity during middle childhood, which can lead to in-group favoritism and out-group prejudice. However, understanding of individual rights and fairness continues to improve. - **Moral and Social-Conventional Understanding**: - Children become better at distinguishing between moral rules (e.g., fairness, justice) and social-conventional rules (e.g., table manners). They also develop a clearer understanding of individual rights. **6. Peer Relations** - **Peer Groups and Friendships**: - Peer groups become more important in middle childhood, with children forming close-knit groups based on shared interests and values. Friendships also become more intimate and focused on mutual trust. - **Peer Acceptance**: - Peer acceptance is an important factor in social development. Children are often categorized as popular, rejected, neglected, controversial, or average, based on their social interactions. **7. Gender Typing** - **Gender-Stereotyped Beliefs**: - Gender stereotypes become more rigid during middle childhood. However, some children begin to question these stereotypes and form more flexible ideas about gender roles. - **Gender Identity**: - Gender identity becomes more complex as children develop a sense of themselves in relation to societal gender norms. Some children may adopt gender-typed behaviors, while others may resist them. **8. Parent--Child Relationships** - Parents remain a critical source of emotional and social support during middle childhood. However, children become more independent, and the parent-child relationship becomes more reciprocal. **9. Fostering Resilience in Middle Childhood** - Resilience refers to the ability to cope with stress and adversity. Protective factors include a supportive family, strong social skills, and involvement in extracurricular activities. **10. Children's Eyewitness Testimony** - Children's ability to recall events accurately is influenced by factors such as the way questions are asked and their understanding of the situation. Younger children are more susceptible to suggestion, making it important to use appropriate questioning techniques.