PSY 3329 Final Exam Study Guide Part 1 PDF

PSY 3329 – Final Exam Study Guide: Part 1 Chapter 6 What developmental achievement changes the affordances available to a toddler versus those available to an infant? Independent locomotion changes the affordances available to a toddler versus those available to an infant. Independent locomotion r...

PSY 3329 – Final Exam Study Guide: Part 1 Chapter 6 What developmental achievement changes the affordances available to a toddler versus those available to an infant? Independent locomotion changes the affordances available to a toddler versus those available to an infant. Independent locomotion refers to the ability of a child to move around independently. They have mobility and they begin to speak. Independent mobility is key Describe Piaget’s Sensorimotor Substage 5 (12-18 months). It is tertiary circular reactions and the discovery of new means through active experimentation. Here, the toddler is now experimenting like a little scientist (piaget saw them this way), but in a practical manner. The toddler varies and combines actions to produce interesting actions. They begin to carry out mini-experiments to learn about the environment. They become captivated by object properties and start to solve problems by trial and error. Engage in experimentation. Describe Piaget’s Sensorimotor Substage 6 (18-30 months). Here is inventions through sudden comprehension. Here the toddler goes beyond trial-and-error. The toddler has the ability to follow an object through invisible displacements, searching for it persistently (a true understanding of object permanence has developed). The toddler has become capable of forming mental representations. They perform deferred imitation which is where the toddler copies what they saw someone do hours or days earlier. Here, the toddler begins to engage in make-believe/pretend play. Capable of forming mental representations, can copy what someone else does (deferred imitation), object permanence has developed, pretend play Describe Tertiary Circular Reactions. Known as a period of 'trial and error' when children will carry out certain actions to observe the reactions of others or the environment. 1 How does Ainsworth’s understanding of attachment reflect specific cultural values? The sensitivity hypothesis of Ainsworth has a cultural bias to eliciting the child towards an autonomous subjectivity which is that of an independent culture rather than an interdependent one. Describe the attachment pattern of Northern German children and the cultural context informing this pattern. Believed babies should be weaned from parental bodily contact as soon as they become mobile. Believed that the ideal baby is an independent, non-clinging infant who does not make demands on the parents but rather unquestioningly obeys their commands. They are insecurely attached because the cultural norm in Northern Germany emphasizes interpersonal distance which is kept between the baby and parents. Describe the attachment pattern of Japanese children and the cultural context informing this pattern. Have anxious resistance toddlers and no anxious avoidant infants. Japanese mothers rarely leave their children in the care of another person and emphasize dependence more on their children. Opposite of Northern German mothers who emphasize independence Describe the Contingent Stance, the Customary Stance, and the Teleological Stance. The contingent stance is an attitude or approach where one recognizes that outcomes or decisions are not absolute but depend on specific circumstances and variables. The customary stance is when toddlers recognize the customary norms permitted and prohibited behavior in the family. Here, a toddler is not only learning what they can and can’t do but what they may and may not do. The teleological stance is when the toddler is able to understand the goal that is visible in a person’s action. In the contingent stance the infant sees when I do this, this happens. In the customary stance the infants understand what is customary behavior but they don’t understand it as an institutional role Describe Tomasello’s Theory of Shared Intentionality. Suggests that humans have a unique cognitive ability to understand and share goals with others, allowing for coordinated collaborative actions and communication, which sets us apart from other species by enabling us to work together towards a common purpose, essentially thinking and acting as a "we" instead of just an "I" when interacting with others. When a child understands that others are goal-oriented. Occurs between 2 people and starts to develop at around 14 months. It is the ability to form mental representations of another’s mental state. Same as joint intentionality 2 Chapter 7 Describe Holophrastic speech. A stage of language development in which children use single words or short phrases like “mama” “dada” and “ball” to convey a complete idea or thought. It's also known as the one-word stage and typically occurs when children are between 12 and 18 months old. What was the aim of Roger Brown’s early research on language development? Roger Brown's early research on language development aimed to understand and describe the systematic stages children go through when acquiring grammar, particularly focusing on how children gradually develop the ability to produce increasingly complex sentences by identifying patterns in their speech and the order in which they acquire grammatical morphemes, often measured by the "mean length of utterance" (MLU) metric. researching the grammar and syntax of speech Describe Vertical Constructions. In language development, "vertical constructions" refer to the building of linguistic complexity by adding layers of detail or sophistication to existing structures, essentially progressing from simpler to more complex forms within a single grammatical category, while "horizontal constructions" involve expanding the range of vocabulary or grammatical structures at a similar level of complexity, adding new options within a given linguistic domain. Toddler perform vertical constructions before they perform horizontal constructions. They are single word utterances that are related. Describe Grammatical Morphemes. Words that express grammatical relationships between other words. (“a”, “the”, “but”, “after”, “that”, “she”. Words that express connections or relationships like personal pronouns. Words that have no meaning in themselves. Toddlers don’t use these Describe the “pragmatic” perspective on language development? The "pragmatic" (practical) perspective on language development views language acquisition as primarily driven by social interaction and the need to communicate effectively in different contexts, focusing on understanding and using language appropriately based on the situation, the listener, and social cues, rather than just the literal meaning of words. Using language to accomplish real-world tasks. What are some emotions that evidence an emergence of self-consciousness? Pride, shame, guilt, embarrassment, envy, jealousy. Would start to show these at around the end of the second year Describe the Rouge Test. A small amount of red coloring, like rouge, is placed on a child's nose without them knowing. The child is then placed in front of a mirror and the researcher asks if the child can identify the 3 mark or clean it off. Children who touch the mark on their nose instead of the mirror are considered to have passed the test and are demonstrating self-awareness. Children who only look at the mirror or touch the mirror itself have not yet developed self-awareness. How did Piaget make use of Ferdinand de Saussure’s theory of the Linguistic Sign? He used the semiotic theory. For Piaget, the semiotic function is developed through play Describe the difference between Joint Intentionality and Collective Intentionality. For Vygotsky, what are the hallmarks of Psychological Differentiation? Joint intentionality is the ability to form joint goal, joint knowledge, and to share attention and attitudes. Collective intentionality is when there is an addition to a new kind of social engagement, in which the toddler is able to become equal partners with another person, recognizing the roles that are involved in an interaction and the perspectives that these roles define. Vygotsky suggested that the development of the semiotic function—the ability to see one thing as representing another—was a result, as least in part, of object substitution play. In Vygotsky’s view, early pretend play, in which one object is substituted for another, is where a distinction begins to develop between how something appears and what it is. Secondary emotions/self-evaluative emotions (embarrasment, pride, shame, guilt, envy), self-referential language (“I”, “me”), mirror self-recognition Describe the unique form of consciousness that Nso toddlers develop. Use proximal style of caretaking. Nso toddlers develop a distinct kind of self-conciousness in which the “body self” and “social self” are central. Will develop a body-based consciousness that is more socially oriented Chapter 8 Describe the kind of play that young children engage in. They engage in sociodramatic/pretend play. Here, the play at being some other kind of person. Describe the gendered nature of play in young children. Compared to boy’s play, girl’s paly focuses on a localized part of the playground, appears to be with organizing the taking of turns in a way which will be fair, and do not assign characters, nor does the tire stand for something else, such as a spaceship. Describe metacommunication in young children. Metacommunication is often required to set up the appropriate context within which to understand what is said. It is communication about communication, indicating how a message should be interpreted. Setting up how things are gonna go before they actually happen Describe the difference in play between young children and children in middle childhood. 4 Young children (4-6) do sociodramatic play while middle childhood children (8-10) start playing games with rules At what age do children draw a distinction between appearance and reality? 5-6 yr olds. whenever children engage in sociodramatic play Describe how Piaget understood children’s play. For Piaget, play was a failure to adapt to reality, an activity in which assimilation predominates. He saw play as something a child must grow out of. He saw play as a failure to adapt to reality Describe how Vygotsky understood children’s play. For Vygotsky, play is an opportunity to develop the imagination, and it is the central line of development in early childhood, an anticipation of a possible future. Play is imagination in action. Vygotsky proposed, then, that far from growing out of play as they get older, as Piaget proposed, children grow deeper into play. Vygotsky viewed it as important preparation for the future. Found that children impose rules on themselves How do Mayan people view children’s play. Young Maya children have little opportunity to meet new playmates, and they are expected to conform to the guidance of their older siblings. One group of three Maya girl cousins aged 6 to 10 played at making tortillas: going to town in a truck to shop, grinding corn into tortilla masa, preparing for a dance, sweeping, and washing dishes. Play is unimportant and is simply a sign that children are healthy What do cross-cultural studies of young children’s play indicate about play’s structure and function? In interdependent culture, play is gestured around the society that the adults are doing around them and the roles they will be doing in the future. With regards specifically to sociodramatic play, it is either inevitable or universal. What are some cultural differences in attitudes towards pre-school? Their ideal class size was 15 students or more, while the American preschool teachers said a preschool class should ideally have only 4 to 8 young children. In Japan, after more than a decade of economic difficulties, the teachers told the researchers that preschools should conserve traditional values, perspectives and skills. In the USA the researchers found a growing emphasis on academic readiness, accountability, and scientifically based teaching. Describe the differences between Baumrind’s typologies of authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive care-taking styles. Authoritarian parenting applies a fixed standard of conduct to the young child. Such parents see obedience as a virtue, and they are in favor of punishment and force when their child seems disobedient or willful. Authoritative parenting tries to direct the young child by using reason, 5 and by encouraging discussion about what is right and wrong. Such a parent explains the reasons behind their decisions, and asks the child for her point of view when there is disagreement. Permissive parenting is accepting and positive, and does not punish the child’s actions or desires. Such parents make few demands of their young child Describe the “ontological” turn in cultural psychology. Instead of cultures having different views on one reality, cultures simply have different realities. A shift in perspective that cultures can have their own reality. Describe animism. The belief that all things possess life and consciousness. Piaget argued that animism gives young children a sense of unity with the world. It leads them to have what Piaget considered magical beliefs—that the natural world was created for them, and that since it is alive they are able to control it. Which developmental theorist viewed play as the self-imposing of constraints? Vygotsky What are the cultural assumptions underlying Baumrind’s typologies of parenting? Baumrind's parenting typologies are based on cultural assumptions about the importance of autonomy, individuality, and social conformity. The authoritative style reflects Western values of fostering independence and self-regulation, while the authoritarian style emphasizes obedience and respect for authority, which may be more valued in cultures that prioritize social harmony and family hierarchy. Chapter 9 Describe the Intentional stance. Prior intention. Refers to the perspective that interprets actions as deliberate and intentional, focusing on the reasons and motives behind them rather than just observable behavior. According to Piaget, what is egocentrism? Egocentrism is the lack of ability to understand another person’s visual perspective. It assumes that everyone sees the world in the way that she does. In Piaget’s view, egocentrism is illustrated by the young child’s failure to understand other people’s mental states: their beliefs, desires, thoughts, and intentions Describe Level 2 Perspective taking. Recognizing that an object which is visible to both themselves and another person will be seen in different ways. Emerges at around 4 years of age At what age can children solve false belief tasks? 4-5 years old 6 Describe the Conventional Stance. A toddler’s understanding of social conventions. Children understand and enforce agreements that are binding on the members of a group. Customary stance comes first. The conventional stance is an outgrowth of the customary stance. It is a broader understanding of typical roles that characters can have Describe how Freud linked the formation of the gender-identity with the Super-ego. According to Freud, gender identity is largely formed during the phallic stage of psychosexual development, where a child identifies with the same-sex parent and internalizes their values and morals, essentially forming the basis of their superego; this process is particularly crucial for boys through the Oedipus complex, where they resolve their desire for their mother by identifying with their father and adopting his masculine traits, thus solidifying their male gender identity through the superego. Develop fear and respect for their father, which is there superego At what age do children demonstrate an understanding of Institutional roles. 7-8 (middle childhood) According to Vygtosky, how does verbal thinking develop in early childhood? Vygotsky suggested a toddler’s chattering to herself shows that she is not yet individual. Vygotsky insisted we are social from birth. Considered “egocentric” speech as rather self-directed speech. Self-directed speech shows us the important role that oral language plays in the development of thinking. Found that when toddlers are faced with difficult situations, they talk to themselves. Countered that in early childhood, thought is self-directed speech, spoken out loud. Thought is first social, and only gradually becomes individual. Social speech occurs first, self-directed speech occurs second, covert speech (your own internal monologue) occurs third How did Piaget view thinking in early childhood Mental action using mental representations What is brain growth in early childhood grows 80% of its adult weight to 90% of its adult weight (3 yrs to 6 yrs) 7 Chapter 11 Describe Theory of Mind. Theory of mind (ToM) is the ability to understand and attribute mental states to others and oneself. It's a branch of cognitive science that studies how people use mental states to explain and predict the actions of others. "Theory of mind" is the ability to understand that other people have their own thoughts, feelings, and beliefs, which are different from your own, allowing you to predict how they might act based on their perspective Describe Kohlberg’s three levels of moral development. According to Kohlberg's theory of moral development, the three levels are: 1. Preconventional morality (morality based on direct consequences and avoiding punishment). "Don't do something because you'll get in trouble.", "Do something if it benefits you personally." 2. Conventional morality (morality based on societal rules and expectations). "Do what is expected by others to be liked" , "Follow the rules because they are important for society" 3. Postconventional morality (morality based on universal principles and personal ethics, often going beyond societal norms). "Break rules if necessary for the greater good" , "Act based on personal moral principles, even if it goes against the law" What did Freud call the child’s first emotional attachment to a person Primary identification Describe the Institutional Stance. Understanding of the roles and rules that define what people do, and what they must do. A perspective that analyzes human behavior by focusing on the established rules, norms, and social structures (institutions) that shape individual actions, essentially viewing people's choices as largely determined by the roles and expectations embedded within their social context, rather than solely by their individual thoughts or desires What was the goal of the first schools? Develop scribes/record keepers. Formal knowledge in writing and reading. Describe Concrete Operational reasoning The child has now constructed organized systems of mental operations, and these are evident in reasoning tasks such as classification, serial ordering, and forming correspondences. The child is now able to think about the consequences of a transformation, because she can mentally reverse the transformation. Now able to distinguish between appearance and reality: between how something appears to the senses, versus how it actually is. (like the conversion of water from a tall beaker to a squat beaker) Describe Vygotsky’s understanding of Higher Psychological functions? 8 According to Lev Vygotsky, "Higher Psychological Functions" refer to complex cognitive abilities like planning, reasoning, and self-regulation that are not innate but are developed through social interaction and the internalization of cultural tools, primarily language, within a person's social environment Describe Vygotsky’s concept of a Zone of Proximal Development. Vygotsky's "Zone of Proximal Development" (ZPD) refers to the gap between what a learner can accomplish independently and what they can achieve with guidance from a more knowledgeable person, like a teacher or peer, essentially representing the sweet spot where optimal learning occurs when tasks are challenging enough but not too difficult to master with support Describe how children come to understand Institutional roles. Children understand institutional roles through socialization, primarily by observing and interacting with authority figures like parents, teachers, and other adults. As they grow, they internalize these roles by participating in structured environments such as schools, where they learn about the responsibilities and behaviors associated with different positions like students, teachers, and administrators. Through these experiences, children begin to recognize the expectations and functions of various societal institutions. Describe a school cut-off study. A "school cut-off study" is a research design in education that examines the impact of a school district's age cut-off date on student outcomes, essentially comparing the academic performance and development of children born just before the cut-off date (considered "older" for their grade) to those born just after the cut-off date (considered "younger") within the same grade level, allowing researchers to isolate the effect of age on educational attainment while controlling for other factors like socioeconomic background Chapter 12 Describe the biological changes that occur at puberty in humans. For men, testosterone results in voice breaks, growth of muscle tissue, enlargement of genitalia, facial, pubic, and axillary hair. For women, estrogen results in broadening of hips, development of breasts, pubic, and axillary hair Describe what is meant by the term Secular Trend. a long-term, gradual change observed in a population over generations, often related to physical development like height, weight, or the age of puberty onset, which is attributed to environmental factors like nutrition, healthcare advancements, and socioeconomic conditions rather than genetic changes Describe brain growth during puberty. 9 During puberty, the brain undergoes significant development, primarily focused on the maturation of the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for decision-making and complex thinking, while also seeing increased myelination (insulation of nerve fibers) that speeds up neural communication, leading to improved cognitive abilities but also potential challenges with impulse control due to the still-developing nature of this region How have attitudes changed regarding expectations for adolescents to separate from their parents? Now adolescents are more expected to separate from their parents Describe an Indian Ghotul. A gotul is a tribal youth dormitory in form of a spacious hut surrounded by earthen or wooden wall. It is where unmarried boys and girls live together, essentially serving as a space for social interaction, learning, and premarital relationships within the community, often considered an autonomous "children's republic" with its own rules and leadership structure; What is a unique aspect of identity development in Western cultures? A unique aspect of identity development in Western cultures is a strong emphasis on individualism. The identity status model. In Western, urban, middle-class families today, the emphasis on choice and individuality means that adolescence is relatively long, that forming an identity requires conscious deliberation and culturally sanctioned experimentation, and that adolescence ends with commitments that remain provisional and open to revision Describe Erikson’s concept of a Moratorium. In Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, a "moratorium" refers to a period during adolescence where individuals actively explore different identities and potential life paths without making firm commitments, essentially putting their identity development on hold while they experiment with various roles and values before settling on a definitive self-concept Describe Psychosocial Acceleration Theory. The quality of the environment during early childhood influences various aspects of the reproductive strategy that is adopted later, in adolescence and adulthood What is evidence that adolescence is a developmental stage defined by culture? Evidence that adolescence is a developmental stage defined by culture includes: vastly different expectations for adolescent behavior across cultures, the social significance attached to puberty milestones in different societies, the impact of cultural stereotypes on adolescent self-perception, and how different cultures mark the transition to adulthood with distinct rituals and rites of passage Chapter 13 Describe Piaget’s understanding of Formal Operational reasoning. 10 For Piaget, unlike Vygotsky, the capacity to explore possibilities is a result of a new kind of ability with logic, rather than the creative power of imagination. Piaget maintained that formal operational reasoning is independent of the content of the propositions on which it operates. Suggested that that teenagers who are more interested in literary, artistic or practical activities might be incapable of developing formal operational reasoning. What does Formal Operational thinking most closely correspond to in Vygotsky’s thought? In Vygotsky's framework, Formal Operational thinking in Piaget’s theory most closely corresponds to the development of higher mental functions and scientific concepts, which emerge through social interactions and the internalization of cultural tools like language, rather than being purely a result of maturation. Describe Epistemological Relativism. The position that knowledge is valid only relatively to a specific context, society, culture or individual. (meaning what is considered "true" for one person might not be true for someone else based on their different context; essentially, there's no single, universal standard of knowledge that applies to everyone) Describe Ethical Relativism. The philosophical view that morality is relative to a person's culture, circumstances, or social situation. (meaning what is considered "right" or "wrong" depends entirely on the culture or society you're in, so something considered morally wrong in one place could be perfectly acceptable in another) How do some researchers link changes in the Limbic System and the Prefrontal cortex to adolescent risk-taking? Research links adolescent risk-taking to changes in the Limbic System and Prefrontal Cortex due to their asynchronous development. The Limbic System, which governs emotional responses and reward sensitivity, is highly active during adolescence, driving risk-seeking behaviors, while the Prefrontal Cortex, responsible for impulse control and decision-making, is still maturing. This imbalance between heightened emotions and underdeveloped regulation contributes to impulsive and riskier decisions, especially under peer influence. From an evolutionary perspective, what is the newest part of the brain? The prefrontal cortex How do peer groups influence adolescent behavior? Peer groups have a significant influence on adolescent behavior, particularly in decision-making and risk-taking. During adolescence, the Limbic System is highly active, making adolescents more sensitive to rewards, which is amplified in social contexts, leading to a greater susceptibility to peer pressure. As a result, adolescents are more likely to engage in risky behaviors when with peers, driven by the desire for social approval and emotional rewards​ Describe the three kinds of reasoning proposed by Moshman. 11  - Analogical Reasoning: based upon a similarity with what has been successful in the past - Law-based reasoning: conforms to the rules of logic - Dialectical Reasoning: based on reflection and argumentation. It requires considering multiple perspectives, resolving contradictions, and synthesizing different viewpoints to arrive at more comprehensive understandings How does Vygotksy understand the difference between everyday concepts and scientific concepts? Everyday concepts are informal, practical concepts that children acquire through direct experience in everyday life. They are often concrete and context-dependent, formed through interaction with the environment and social experiences. For example, a child may learn the concept of "dog" by encountering different dogs in their surroundings. Scientific concepts are abstract, systematic, and theoretically structured. These concepts are typically introduced through formal education and are more generalizable than everyday concepts. They require instruction and cognitive effort to understand, as they involve learning about underlying principles and theories that go beyond immediate personal experience. For example, learning the scientific concept of "mammal" involves understanding its biological definition, not just encountering individual animals. 12