Chemistry 20 Study Guide PDF

What you need to remember or figure out ahead of time: - How to manipulate formulas - How to convert numbers [to]/from scientific notation - Significant digit rules & rounding - Balancing equations & writing compounds/chemical formulas using ion charges - Where & what everything i...

What you need to remember or figure out ahead of time: - How to manipulate formulas - How to convert numbers [to]/from scientific notation - Significant digit rules & rounding - Balancing equations & writing compounds/chemical formulas using ion charges - Where & what everything is on your data book + how to use it - Remember what units need to be used for different calculations (most are implied in the data book but not all) - Molar Mass and Chemical Amount mean the same thing Unit A: Chemical Bonding ======================== 3.1 --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.2 --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.3 --- - - - - - - - - - - - - Unit B: Gases ============= [[General Study Guide]](https://chatgpt.com/share/67171546-9b40-8000-a340-0d1a6a85407b) [[4.1]](https://chatgpt.com/share/67171686-050c-8000-97d1-80e723cefbcc) [[4.2]](https://chatgpt.com/share/67171732-7a58-8000-81d9-5b472d04279d) [[4.3]](https://chatgpt.com/share/67171847-1578-8000-83dd-d57079b5e247) [[4.4 Pt 1]](https://chatgpt.com/share/67171a36-ce70-8000-b010-35869112e90c) [[4.4 Pt 2]](https://chatgpt.com/share/671719f9-dcac-8000-89ac-98031cb81e13) 4.1 --- ### [Introduction to Empirical Properties of Gases] ### [Key Empirical Properties of Gases] - **Pressure (P)**: - - - - - **Volume (V)**: - - - - **Temperature (T)**: - - - **Number of Moles of Gas (n)**: - - ### [Pressure and the Behavior of Gases] - **Barometer**: Tool used to measure atmospheric pressure. ### [Gas Laws] 1. **Boyle's Law**: P1V1 = P2V2​ - 2. **Charles's Law**: V1/T1 = V2/T2 - 3. **Gay-Lussac's Law**: P1/T1 = P2/T2​​ - ### [Units and Conversions] - **Temperature**: Always use Kelvin for gas law calculations. - **Pressure**: Common units include kPa, atm, and mmHg. - **Volume**: Generally in liters (L) or cubic meters (m³). - **Amount of gas**: Measured in moles (mol). ### [Graphical Representation] - **Pressure-Volume Graph (Boyle's Law)**: A downward-sloping curve (hyperbolic). - **Volume-Temperature Graph (Charles's Law)**: A straight line passing through the origin when temperature is measured in Kelvin. 4.2 --- ### [Properties of Gases:] - **Compressibility**: Gases can be easily compressed because the particles are far apart. - **Expansion**: Gases expand to fill any container due to the random movement of particles. - **Low Density**: The density of gases is much lower than that of solids and liquids, as particles are spread out. ### [Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT)] - **Particles in constant random motion**: Gas molecules are always moving in straight lines until they collide with something (another molecule or the container walls). - **Elastic collisions**: Gas particles collide without losing energy. - **Negligible particle size**: The volume of individual gas particles is very small compared to the total volume of the gas. - **No intermolecular forces**: Gas molecules do not attract or repel each other in ideal gas behavior. - **Direct relationship between temperature and kinetic energy**: As the temperature of a gas increases, the average speed and kinetic energy of the particles increase. 4.3 --- - - 4.4 --- ### [Ideal Gas Law:] - P = pressure (in kPa) - V = volume (in L) - n = number of moles of gas - R = universal gas constant (8.314) - T = temperature (in Kelvin) - It allows us to calculate the missing property of a gas when three of the other variables are known. - For example, if you know the pressure, volume, and temperature, you can find the number of moles of gas. ### [Real vs. Ideal Gases] - **Ideal Gas**: Follows all gas laws perfectly under all conditions. Real gases approximate ideal behavior under many conditions, but deviations occur at high pressures and low temperatures. - **Real Gas**: Has intermolecular forces and the volume of particles is significant in certain conditions. Deviates from ideal gas laws, especially under high pressure and low temperature. ### [Deviations from Ideal Gas Behaviour:] - Gas particles do experience **intermolecular forces**, which are not accounted for in the ideal gas law. - The volume of gas particles becomes significant, especially at high pressure. Unit C: Solutions, Acids & Bases ================================ Naming and Identifying Acids and Bases -------------------------------------- - Identifying acids - - Naming Acids **IUPAC Naming** - - - **Classical Naming** - - - - Identifying bases - - Naming Bases - 5.1 --- - Solution: A homogeneous mixture (we can't separate the components) where one substance is dissolved in the other, comprised of: - - - Properties of Aqueous Solutions - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.2 --- - Solvation (All solutions): The process of surrounding solute particles with solvent molecules to break up the solute and form a solution. The solvent breaks up the solute. - Dissociation (Ionic compounds break up): The process by which an [ionic] compound separates into its ions when dissolved in water. - Dissociation Equations: Represent how compound dissociate 1. 2. 3. 4. - Ionization (Molecular compounds become ionic): The process in which a neutrally charged molecule reacts with water to form ions - - - NH~3~ Gains a hydrogen to form NH~4~ - The remaining Hydrogen and Oxygen from water form OH - Energy Changes - - - - - Substances in Water (To represent the equations: A = Anions B,C = Cations) - - - - 5.3 --- - Percentage Concentration - - - - - - - Parts Per Million Concentration - - - - Amount Concentration - - - - - - - - Concentration of Ions - 1. 2. 3. 4. - 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.4 --- - Standard Solution - Stock Solution - Preparing Standard Solutions Using Dilution (+ calculations) 5.5 --- - Solubility: **Solubility** is a measure of how much of a substance (**solute**) can dissolve in a certain amount of solvent (water) to form a **saturated solution** at a specific temperature. - **Saturated solution**: This is when no more solute can dissolve in the solvent at that specific temperature. Any extra solute will just stay as undissolved solid. - Saturation: the point at which a solution can no longer dissolve any more solute at a given temperature. - Solubility in Water Generalizations - - - - - - - - - - - Dynamic Equilibrium - In a saturated solution, particles dissolve and crystallize (solidify) at the same rate, keeping the saturation level constant. - - 6.1 --- - The Nature of Acidic and Basic Solutions  - Arrhenius Definitions - - - - Modified Arrhenius Definitions - A modified modern version of Arrhenius theories 6.2 --- - Neutral water (pH 7) contains trace amounts of both hydronium and hydroxide ions, due to a very slight ionization, so slight that it will usually show no conductivity. - Lower pH = More acidic, Higher pH = More basic - pH and pOH (pOH is basically ph but opposite) - - - - - - - 6.3 --- - Using acid-base indicators (listed in data booklet) 6.4 --- - Arrhenius and Modified Arrhenius definitions (know the difference) - Neutralization reactions 6.5 --- - Empirical Properties of acids and bases - Strong vs Weak Acids (strong acids listed in data book) - Strong vs Weak Bases - Strong and Weak vs Concentrated and Dilute Kind of Confusing-ish Example Questions: - - - Polyprotic Substances Unit D: Stoichiometry ===================== 7.1 --- - Limitations of Reaction Equations - - - - - Reaction Assumptions - - - - - - Types of Chemical Equations - - - - - - - - Limiting and Excess Reagents 7.2 --- - Gravimetric Stoichiometry - Applications of Stoichiometry - Yield - The amount of a substance produced in a chemical reaction Percent Yield = Actual Yield / Predicted Yield - - - 7.3 --- - Gas Stoichiometry - - - 7.4 --- - Solution Stoichiometry - - - 8.1 --- - Qualitative Analysis - Colorimetry - The process of identifying ions by their flame color or the color of their aqueous solution. (Tables in Data Book) - - 8.2 --- - Selective Precipitation - The process used to remove a metal from a solution by forming an insoluble compound, which results in the formation of a precipitate. 8.3 --- - Finding the Limiting Reagent - - - - - - - Calculating Excess Reagent - - - - - - - - Determining how much excess to use in a reaction  - - 8.4 --- - Titration - a method used to determine the amount concentration of substances in a solution. - Parts of a Titration - - - - - - - Appropriate indicators - Steps for a Titration 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.