Psychology Chapter on Anxiety Disorders and Motivation

Psychological Disorders

• Psychological disorders are syndromes characterized by clinically significant dysfunction, distress, and atypical behavior.
• They are associated with significant distress in social, occupational, or other important activities.
• Psychopathology is the study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, causes, and treatment.

The American Psychiatric Association (APA) Definition

• There are significant disturbances in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
• The disturbances reflect biological, psychological, or developmental dysfunction.
• The disturbances lead to significant distress or disability in a person's life.
• The disturbances do not reflect expected or culturally approved responses to events.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

• The DSM is a handbook used by healthcare professionals to diagnose mental disorders.
• It is the authoritative guide to diagnosis of mental disorders within the United States and much of the world.

The Compassionate View of Psychological Disorders

• Psychological disorders represent extremes of inner experience and behavior.
• People with psychological disorders are more than just embodiments of their disorders.
• Psychological disorder is not what a person is, but something a person has, through no fault of their own.

Anxiety Disorders

• These disorders are characterized by excessive and persistent fear and anxiety.
• Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD): Characterized by extreme and persistent fear of social situations.
• Phobia: Overwhelming fear of a specific object, situation, or animal.
• Panic Disorder: Sudden periods of intense fear or discomfort, peaking within 10 minutes (symptoms include: increased heart rate, sweating, dizziness).
• Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Persistent worry about everyday things, often unjustified.

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

• These are overlapping disorders involving intrusive, unpleasant thoughts and repetitive behaviors.
• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions).
• Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Preoccupation with a perceived flaw in physical appearance.
• Hoarding Disorder: Inability to bear parting with personal possessions, regardless of value.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

• PTSD was previously categorized among anxiety disorders and is now classified under Trauma-and-Stressors-Related Disorders.
• Individuals exposed to traumatic events (threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence) may develop PTSD.
• Symptoms include intrusive and distressing memories, flashbacks, avoidance, and negative emotional states.
• Symptoms must persist for at least one month to be diagnosed as PTSD.

Mood and Related Disorders

• Depression: Characterized by persistent sadness, discouragement, and hopelessness. Often includes loss of interest in activities.
• Mania: A state of intense elation and agitation characterized by talkativeness, reckless behavior, and taking on many tasks simultaneously.

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

• Characterized by persistent depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day.
• Symptoms include significant weight/appetite changes, sleep disturbances, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness, and suicidal ideation.

Bipolar Disorder

• Characterized by alternating periods of depression and mania.
• Manic episodes involve abnormally elevated mood and increased activity or energy.

Schizophrenia

• A psychotic disorder, characterized by impaired thoughts, perceptions, and behaviors.
• Individuals with schizophrenia may experience a disconnect from the world around them.

Symptoms of Schizophrenia

• Hallucinations: Perceptual experiences lacking stimuli.
• Delusions: Beliefs contrary to reality; firmly held beliefs.
• Disorganized Thinking: Jumbled thoughts and speech
• Disorganized or Abnormal Motor Behavior: Unusual or repetitive movements.
• Negative Symptoms: Diminished emotional expression (flat affect).

Dissociative Disorders

• Characterized by a splitting off from one's core sense of self.
• Dissociative Amnesia: Inability to recall important personal information, often after a traumatic event.
• Depersonalization/Derealization: Detachment from oneself or the world, feeling unreal.
• Dissociative Identity Disorder: Presence of two or more distinct personalities.

Disorders in Childhood

• Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Problems with social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors.

Personality Disorders

• Enduring personality traits that differ sharply from cultural expectations.
• Cluster A: Odd or eccentric behaviors (paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal).
• Cluster B: Impulsive and erratic behaviors (antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic).
• Cluster C: Anxious and fearful behaviors (avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive).

Clusters A, B, and C

• Subtypes of Personality Disorders;
• Cluster A: Paranoid, schizotypal, schizoid
• Cluster B: Antisocial, borderline, narcissistic, histrionic
• Cluster C: Avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive

Treatment of Psychological Disorders

• Some individuals attend therapy involuntarily, such as when mandated by a court. Others seek treatment voluntarily.
• Therapy includes psychotherapy and biomedical (pharmacotherapy)
• Psychotherapy uses psychological methods to help individuals overcome problems or achieve personal growth. Biomedical therapies use medications or procedures.

History of Mental Illness Treatment

• Historically, mental illness was often attributed to demonic possession or angry gods.
• Treatment methods included incantations, prayers, and trephining.
• Asylums were developed from the 18th Century, but their primary goal was to remove those exhibiting unusual behavior rather than treat them.

Types of Treatments

• Include psychotherapy and biomedical therapies (pharmacotherapy).
• Psychotherapies employ psychological methods to help individuals identify and overcome problematic behaviors.
• Biomedical therapies involve medications or medical procedures to treat mental disorders.

Types of Psychotherapy Techniques

• Psychodynamic/Psychoanalysis: Aims to uncover unconscious conflicts; uses free association, dream analysis.
• Play Therapy: (children) uses toys and play scenarios to express conflicts and unconscious issues.
• Behavior Therapy: Uses principles of learning; exposure therapy to deal with fears and anxieties.
• Cognitive Therapy: Examines and changes cognitive distortions that lead to distress.
• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Combines cognitive and behavioral approaches to identify and modify problematic patterns.
• Humanistic Therapy: Encourages self-awareness and personal growth.

Biomedical (Pharmacotherapy) Part 1

• **Antipsychotics (1950s):**Treat positive symptoms (hallucinations, delusions); examples: Haldol, Thorazine. Tardive dyskinesia is a potential side effect.
• Atypical Antipsychotics (late 1980's): Treat both positive and negative symptoms; examples: Abilify, Risperdal. Possible side effect: increased risk of obesity and diabetes.

Biomedical (Pharmacotherapy) Part 2

• Antidepressants: Treat depression and increasingly for anxiety; examples: Paxil, Prozac, Tofranil.
• Anti-anxiety Agents: Treat anxiety and agitation; examples: Xanax, Valium. Side effects include drowsiness and dizziness.

Biomedical (Pharmacotherapy) Part 3

• Mood Stabilizers: Treat bipolar disorder; examples: Lithium, Depakote.
• Stimulants: Treat ADHD; examples: Adderall, Ritalin.
• Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): Used for severe depression.

Treatment Modalities

• Individual Therapy: One-on-one sessions with a therapist.
• Group Therapy: Therapy involving multiple individuals.
• Couples Therapy: Focuses on interpersonal challenges impacting the relationship.
• Family Therapy: Involves families to identify and treat familial conflict or issues.

Stress, Coping, and Health

• Stress: A process where individuals view events as overwhelming or threatening. Primary appraisal is assessing harm; secondary involves evaluating coping options.
• General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Body's nonspecific physiological response to stress (alarm, resistance, exhaustion stages).
• Different types of Stressors: Traumatic events, Life changes, hassles, Occupation-related stressors.
• Social Readjustment Rating Scale (Holmes & Rahe): Measures stress levels based on life events.

Stress and Illness

• Psychophysiological Disorders: Physical illnesses rooted in stress and emotional factors.
• Stress on the Immune System: Stress can impair the body's immune system.
• Cardiovascular Disorders: Stress is linked to increased risk of cardiovascular illnesses.
• Other illnesses: Asthma, headaches, as well as increased risk of death from cardiovascular disease in individuals with depression.

Regulation of Stress

• Coping Styles: Method for managing stress: problem-focused, emotion-focused.
• Control and Stress: Influence over stress is crucial.
• Social Support: Importance of friendship, family, and acquaintance support for emotional comfort and assistance.

Stress Reduction Techniques

• Exercise: Physical activity reduces stress.
• Meditation & Relaxation: Mind-body practices decrease stress and improve focus.
• Biofeedback: Enhances conscious control over involuntary bodily functions.

Happiness

• Elements of Happiness: Pleasant life, Good Life, Meaningful Life.
• Factors Connected to Happiness: Family relationships, income, education, and employment.

Positive Psychology

• Emphasizes strengths and well-being.
• Positive affect: Positive feelings and engagement.
• Optimism: Positive view of the future and situation.
• Flow: Engrossing experience of focusing on activities that challenge you.

Motivation

• Intrinsic Motivation: Driven from within (mastery, accomplishment, growth).
• Extrinsic Motivation: Driven from outside sources (rewards, praise, money).
• Drive Theory: Physiological needs create drive states directing behavior to re-establish homeostasis. Habits occur when reducing drive in a particular way makes repeated engagements more likely.
• Self-efficacy: Belief in one's ability to succeed impacting one's motivations and actions.

Hunger and Eating

• Physiological Mechanisms: Hunger is regulated by factors like blood sugar levels, hormones, and brain signals.
• Metabolism & Body Weight: Body weight is influenced by genes, environment, activity levels, and caloric balance.
• Obesity: Characterized by excess body fat and increased risk of various health conditions.
• Hunger and Eating Disorders: Bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, and anorexia nervosa.

Sexual Behavior

• Physiological Mechanisms: Hypothalamus (especially the medial preoptic area) is key in sexual motivation; other brain areas and hormones like testosterone are involved.
• Sexual Orientation: Refers to emotional, romantic, and erotic attraction to others.
• Sexual Response Cycle: Different stages of sexual response in humans.
• Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity: Both are important aspects of sexual behavior. Gender identity refers to how someone perceives their gender; sexual orientation refers to attraction.

Theories of Emotion

• James-Lange Theory: Emotions are reactions to physiological arousal.
• Cannon-Bard Theory: Emotions and physiological arousal occur simultaneously, but independently.
• Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Emotions have two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal.
• Cognitive Mediation Theory: Emotion is determined by the appraisal of the stimulus.

Social Psychology

• Social Psychology: Studies how people influence and are influenced by others, groups, and situations.
• Situational and Dispositional Influences: Our environment and internal traits affect our behavior.
• Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing internal factors and underestimating external factors when explaining others' actions.
• Actor-Observer Bias: Attributing our behavior to external factors and others to internal factors.
• Self-Serving Bias: Attributing success to internal factors and failure to external factors.
• Just-World Hypothesis: Our tendency for the belief that good people get good things and bad people get bad things.

Social Psychology: Key Terms

• Social Role: Expected behaviors of individuals in a specific setting.
• Social Norm: Group expectations on acceptable behavior.
• Script: Knowledge of event sequence.
• Attitude and Persuasion: Attitudes influence behavior.
• Central Route to Persuasion: Logic-driven approach.
• Peripheral Route to Persuasion: Emotion-based, often using association.
• Foot-in-the-door Technique: Getting someone to comply with a small request followed by a larger one.
• Conformity: Adjusting behavior to match a group's norms.
• Obedience: Following orders from an authority figure.
• Groupthink: Group pressure to conform.
• Group Polarization: Reinforcing existing group views.
• Social Loafing: Reduced effort in a group.
• Deindividuation: Reduced sense of personal responsibility in a group.

Prejudice and Discrimination

• Prejudice is negative attitudes towards a group.
• Discrimination is the actions resulting from prejudice towards a group.
• Stereotypes are oversimplified generalizations about a group.
• Examples: Racism, sexism, ageism, homophobia.
• In-group and Out-group Bias: Favoritism toward the "in-group" and negative perceptions of the "out-group".

Aggression

• Aggression is behavior intended to harm or cause pain.
• Hostile aggression is motivated by anger.
• Instrumental aggression is motivated by achieving a goal.
• Cyberbullying is repeated negative behavior intended to emotionally harm others.
• Bullying is repeatedly negative treatment targeting another person over time, often an adolescent.

Bystander Effect

• Bystander effect is the reduced likelihood of an individual helping someone in distress in a group.
• Diffusion of responsibility is the tendency for no one in a group to help because responsibility to help is spread throughout the group.

Prosocial Behavior

• Altruism is a desire to help others even when the costs outweigh the benefits.
• Empathy is the ability to understand and feel the experiences of another.

Forming Relationships

• Homophily: tendency for people to create social relationships with similar others.
• Reciprocity: Give and take interactions in a relationship.
• Self-disclosure: Sharing personal information in a relationship.

Triangular Theory of Love

• Intimacy: sharing details and feelings.
• Passion: physical attraction.
• Commitment: decision to maintain the relationship.
• Different types of love such as romantic love, companionate love, consummate love, infatuation, fatuous love, and empty love.
• Social exchange theory explains relationships as individuals maximizing benefits and minimizing costs.

Test your understanding of various anxiety disorders, including social anxiety disorder, panic attacks, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Additionally, explore key concepts in motivational psychology, such as intrinsic motivation and the drive theory. This quiz will assess your knowledge on symptoms, diagnosis, and relevant psychological theories.