Chapter+6 psychology 2.pptx

THINKING: MEMORY, COGNITION AND LANGUAGE Chapter 6  Foundations of Memory MEMORY: – Process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information Encoding: – Initial process of recording information in a form usable to memory Storage: – Maintenance of material saved in mem...

THINKING: MEMORY, COGNITION AND LANGUAGE Chapter 6  Foundations of Memory MEMORY: – Process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information Encoding: – Initial process of recording information in a form usable to memory Storage: – Maintenance of material saved in memory Retrieval: – Material in memory storage is located and brought into awareness to be useful  Three-System Approach to Memory Different memory storage systems or stages through which information must travel in order to be remembered – Sensory memory Initial, momentary storage of information that lasts only an instant (example – quick flash of lightning) – Short-term memory Holds information for 15-25 seconds Information stored depending on meaning Example? – Long-term memory Stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve Example?  Does info move from short-term to long-term memory? Depends on the kind/amount of rehearsal of the  Types of Memory Sensory Memory – Stimulation that is extremely brief BUT can provide important information that can require a response – Can store information for only a very short amount of time – If doesn’t pass into short-term memory, it will be lost for good Short-Term Memory – Specific amount of info that can be held in this stage is 7 items/chunks of info CHUNK: meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short-term memory – Example phone number (123) 456-7890 – Can be held for only 15-25 seconds (unless transferred to long-term storage) – Rehearsal Transfer of material from short to long term memory through repetition Elaborative rehearsal – Info is ORGANIZED Ways to do it: – Expanding the info to make it fit into logical framework – Linking it to another memory – Turning it into an image – What fundamental nursing skills should we have elaborative rehearsal?  Long-Term Memory Storehouse of unlimited capacity Info is filed and coded so that we can retrieve it when we need it Memory modules – Several different components of long term memory representing a separate memory system in the brain Types of long term memory – DECLARATIVE MEMORY – Conscious Memory Memory for facts – Names, faces, dates, and facts – Semantic memory Memory for general knowledge, meanings of words and facts about the world Memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts Example: 2 x 2 = 4 – Episodic memory Memory for events that occur in a particular time, place or context Personal knowledge Example: our first kiss  Types of Long Term Memory (Continued) – PROCEDURAL MEMORY – Unconscious Memory Memory for motor skills and habits HOW to do things Unconscious Example: riding a bike  Retrieval Cues Tip of the tongue phenomenon – Inability to recall info that one realizes one knows – Difficulty retrieving info from long term memory Example – Trying to remember former classmate’s name Retrieval cues – Help us sort through different material and retrieve specific info at the appropriate time – Triggered by word, emotion, sound, smell, etc. – Example – Smell of roasting turkey makes one  Recall vs. Recognition RECALL – Specific info must be retrieved – Retrieval cues very important for this – Example: fill in the blank question on a test RECOGNITION – Presented with a stimulus and asked: Whether they have been exposed to it in the past To identify it from a list of alternatives – Easier than recall – Example: multiple choice question on a test  Recall vs. Recognition ____________ ____________  Types of Memories Flashbulb memories – Memories related to a specific, important, or surprising event that are so vivid they represent a virtual snapshot of the event – Example – Senior Prom Autobiographical memories – Recollections of circumstances & episodes from OUR lives – Episodic memories we hold about ourselves – Tend to forget info about our past that is incompatible with the way in which we currently see ourselves  Constructive Processes in Memory Constructive processes – Processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events People tend to remember info in terms of schemas – Organized bodies of info stored in memory Memory – Specific material to which you are exposed – Understanding of the situation – Expectations about the situation  Why We Forget Failure of encoding – May not have paid attention to the material in the first place – Didn’t find it important – Example – Details of coins – Did not study it in the first place Decay – Loss of info through nonuse – Memory traces (physical changes that take place in the brain when new material is learned) simply fade away over time  Why We Forget, contd. Interference – Info in memory disrupts the recall of other info – Example: new phone number is hard to remember because old one is still in your brain Cue-dependent forgetting – Insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle info that is in memory – Example: Lost set of keys – Must retrace all places you visited  Improving Your Memory What situations would we like to forget a memory? Keyword technique: pairing words together & imagining them “interacting” Rely on organization cues: ORGANIZE reading to make connections; example – use cues such as learning objectives in a chapter Take effective notes: thinking about material when you first hear it is more important than writing it down Talk to yourself: say things out loud so that info is stored in your brain (examples – medical terms; medications) Practice, practice, practice: study & rehearse material  Thinking Brain activity in which people mentally manipulate information, including words, visual images, sounds, or other data Transforms information into new and different forms – Allows us to answer questions, make decisions, solve problems, and make plans Mental images – Representations in the mind that resemble an object or event – Production of mental images is a way to improve various skills Example – Basketball players visualize details  Concepts Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people Enable us to organize complex things into simpler, more easily usable categories Prototypes – Typical, highly representative samples of a concept – Correspond to our mental image of best example of a concept – What do you think of when I say vehicle? Car Truck Bus  Reasoning Process by which info is used to draw conclusions & make decisions When making a decision, we use cognitive shortcuts – Algorithms A rule that guarantees a solution to a problem Don’t know mathematical principles behind it, but know that when finding length of the 3rd side of a triangle: a² + b² = c² is always correct – Heuristics Thinking strategy that may lead us to a solution, but – unlike algorithms – may sometimes lead to errors When playing tic tac toe, always put the X in the center square  Problem Solving’s 3 Steps Preparation: Production: Understandi Judgment: Coming up ng & Evaluating with a diagnosing the solution solution the problem  Preparation Stage Trying to understand the problem thoroughly Prune out unnecessary info, divide problem into subparts, simplify task Types of problems: – Well-defined problem: Problem and solution needed to solve it are clear Example: mathematical equation or jigsaw puzzle – Ill-defined problem: PROBLEM and info required to solve the problem may be  Stages (Continued) Production Stage – May already have direct solution stored in long-term memory so just need to retrieve it – Do trial and error – Use heuristics and/or algorithms Judgment Stage – If solution is clear, we will know immediately if we are successful – If solution is less concrete/no single correct solution, evaluating solutions is more difficult – Difficulty solving a problem caused by: Presentation – how it looks (can mislead you at the preparation stage) Functional fixedness – Tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use – Video Example: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gaI7N6J3rAc  Language The communication of info through symbols arranged according to systematic rules Critical period: – Child particularly sensitive to language cues and most easily acquires language – Around 1 year old, stop producing sounds that are not in language to which they are exposed – MOVE onto words Telegraphic speech: – Sentences in which words not critical to message are left out Age 2 - “I show book” Overgeneralization: – Apply language rules even when application results in an error Age 3 - “I runned there”  Learning-Theory Approach Language is a learned skill Acquiring language follows principles of reinforcement and conditioning – Saying “mama” leads to child receiving hugs and praise Language becomes more and more like adult speech due to shaping The more parents speak to their child, the more proficient he/she will become in language use  Language Theories (Continued) Nativist Approach – Language is a skill we are born with – All the world’s languages share common underlying structure: universal grammar – Language-acquisition device Neural system in brain to permit understanding of language – Scientists have discovered gene related to development of language abilities Interactionist Approach – Language development is both biological and social – Combination of genetics and environment help teach language