Chapter+1+PSY.pptx

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 1  What is Psychology? Scientific study of behavior and mental processes Encompasses behaviors, thoughts, emotions, perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, and even the biological activities that maintain bodily functioning  Subfields of P...

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 1  What is Psychology? Scientific study of behavior and mental processes Encompasses behaviors, thoughts, emotions, perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, and even the biological activities that maintain bodily functioning  Subfields of Psychology  Behavioral neuroscience  How the brain and nervous system determine behavior  How our bodies/biology influence our behavior  Experimental psychology  Processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world  Example – Perception of pain different in individuals  Includes cognitive psychology  Higher mental processes, including thinking, memory, reasoning, problem solving, judging, decision making, and language Subfields of Psychology, contd. Developmental psychology – How people grow and change from the moment of conception to death – Example: Attachment occurs at a young age Personality psychology – Consistency in people’s behavior over time – Traits that differentiate one person from another Health psychology – Relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease – Example: Long-term stress (psychological) can affect physical health Subfields of Psychology, contd. Clinical psychology – Study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders – Diagnose and treat problems that range from the crisis of everyday life to more extreme conditions Counseling psychology – Educational, social, and career adjustment problems – Deal with MORE SPECIFIC problems Forensic psychology – Applies psychology to criminal justice system/legal issues Subfields of Psychology, contd. Social psychology – How people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others – Examples: Like, love, persuasion Cross-cultural psychology – Similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures/ethnic groups – Example: how cultures differ in their use of punishment during child rearing Subfields of Psychology, contd. Evolutionary psychology – How behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from ancestors Behavioral genetics – Driven by genes and chromosomes – How we might inherit certain behavioral traits – How the environment influences whether we actually display such traits Working at Psychology Average demographics – Twice as many women as men – Lack of diversity Might deter other minority-group members from entering field Can discourage members of minority groups from seeking treatment Today’s Five Major Perspectives Variety of approaches to understanding behavior Each emphasizes different aspects of behavior and mental processes Five perspectives: 1. Neuroscience 2. Psychodynamic 3. Behavioral 4. Cognitive 5. Humanistic Neuroscience Perspective Considers how we function biologically View of behavior from perspective of brain, nervous system, and other biological functions Heredity influences behavior  Psychodynamic Perspective Behavior motivated by unconscious inner forces/conflicts over which the individual has little control – Example: dreams and slips of the tongue indicate what a person is truly feeling in their unconscious psychic activity Sigmund Freud  Behavioral Perspective John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner Focus on EXTERNAL BEHAVIOR that can be observed and measured objectively Behavior controlled by environment  Cognitive Perspective How people think, understand and know about the world How people comprehend/represent the outside world within themselves How our ways of thinking about the world influence our behavior “Information processing” perspective: like a computer, we take in information and transform, store, and retrieve it  Humanistic Perspective Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow Behavior not controlled by biological forces, unconscious processes, or environment BUT says that – All individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior – Goal = self-fulfillment Free will – Ability to freely make decisions about one’s own behavior and life – Opposite of determinism: behavior caused/determined by things beyond your control  Quick Review A. Neuroscience B. Psychodynamic C. Behavioral D. Cognitive E. Humanistic _____ Most interested in observing and measuring behavior. _____ Focuses on the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions. _____ Suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior. _____ Based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces. _____ Focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world.  Key Issues and Controversies Nature vs. Nurture – Heredity vs. environment – How much of behavior is genetically determined VS. how much is influenced by the physical and social environments in which a child is raised? – Not just one, but combination of both Conscious vs. unconscious causes of behavior – How much of behavior produced by forces of which we are fully aware and how much is due to unconscious activity?  Key Issues and Controversies, contd. Observable behavior vs. internal mental processes – Should psychology concentrate solely on behavior that can be seen by outside observers, or should it focus on unseen thinking processes/what’s going on inside someone’s mind? Free will vs. determinism – Free will Make choices freely and should be responsible for their own actions – Determinism Beyond one’s control Individual differences vs. universal principles – How much of our behavior is a consequence of our unique and special qualities, and how much reflects the culture and society in which we live?  Quick Review 1. When looking at the key issue of “nature versus nurture,” nature refers to what? a. the genes people inherit b. the environment in which people are raised c. the outdoors surrounding the person’s home 2. _______ psychologists think that the only legitimate source of information is behavior that can be observed directly. d. Cognitive e. Psychoanalytic f. Behavioral 3. The notion that behavior is largely produced by factors beyond people’s willful control is referred to as ___________. g. free will h. determinism i. unconscious forces  The Scientific Method System to gain knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest Four main steps – Identifying questions of interest – Formulating an explanation – Carrying out research designed to support or refute explanation – Communicating the findings  Step 1: Identifying the Question Questions can stem from: – Behavior and phenomenon requiring explanation – Building on prior research findings – New questions based on curiosity, creativity, or insight Step 2: Formulating an Explanation Formulate an explanation – Specify a theory to explain the observed phenomenon Theory: BROAD explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest Based on literature, previous research, relevant theories, and knowledge of field  Step 2: Formulating an – Explanation, Develop contd. a hypothesis to know how to test it Hypothesis: prediction stated in a SPECIFIC way that allows it to be tested/educated guess – Example – Ways to save for retirement = 401 K or self investment Help test the correctness of your theory Must be restated in a way that will allow it to be tested – Operational definition: Can be tested, measured, and observed in an experiment (put into operation) – How would you operationally define ”fear” in an experiment? Step 3: Carrying Out Research Research – Inquiry to discover new knowledge – Provides the key to understanding the degree to which hypotheses are accurate Example = HCP research effects of different doses Step 4: Communicating the Findings Was the hypothesis supported or refuted? Are the findings valid? Are results presented fairly? Are there any limitations to the study? Are there implications of the study?  Quick Review A. Scientific Method B. Theories C. Hypothesis D. Operational Definition 1. ____ are broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest. 2. ____ is the translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed. 3. ____ is an educated guess about the outcome of an event. 4. ____ is the systematic approach used by psychologists to acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest. Descriptive Research An approach to research designed to systematically investigate a person, group, or patterns of behavior Types of descriptive research: – Archival research – Naturalistic observation – Survey research – Case study – Correlational research Archival Research Existing data (e.g., census documents, college records, online databases, newspaper articles) are examined to test a hypothesis Pros: Inexpensive; data already collected Cons: Not specific information  Naturalistic Observation Investigator observes some naturally occurring behavior and DOES NOT MAKE A CHANGE in the situation Pros: sample of people in their “natural habitat” Cons: – Inability to control any factors – Must wait until appropriate conditions occur – People may alter their reactions/behaviors if they know they are being watched Survey Research Sample of people chosen to represent a larger group of interest (a population) is asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes Pros: – Researchers able to infer with great accuracy how a larger group would respond Cons: If sample of people is not representative of broader population, the results will have little meaning Case Study More specific investigation of an individual or small group of people Often include psychological testing – Carefully designed set of questions used to gain some insight into the personality of the individual/group Pros: Use insights from a few individuals to improve understanding of people in general; sometimes lead the way to new theories/treatments of disorders Cons: If individuals studied are unique in certain Correlational Research Relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated or “correlated” – Variable: behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way Example: Study time and test scores Correlation – Strength and direction of the relationship between two variables Positive correlation: as value of one variable increases/decreases, the value of the other variable will also increase/decrease – Same direction of movement (example: more years of education = more income) Negative correlation: as value of one variable increases/decreases, the value of the other variable decreases/increases – Does the opposite (example: more years of education = less work-related injuries) When two variables are strongly correlated with each other, it is tempting to assume that one causes the other – BUT just because they occur together does not mean that they have causal relationship – Can’t demonstrate cause-and-effect relationship  Experimental Research Experiment – Investigate the relationship between two (or more) variables by DELIBTERALY PRODUCING A CHANGE in one variable and observing the effects of that change – Conditions CREATED AND CONTROLLED BY RESEARCHER Experimental manipulation – The change that the experimenter deliberately produces in a situation – Used to detect relationships between variables – Manipulate one variable BUT keep all other factors constant  Experimental/Control Groups Treatment – One group will receive special treatment (manipulation implemented by the experimenter) – Other group will receive either NO treatment or DIFFERENT treatment Any group that receives treatment = experimental group Any group that receives NO treatment = control group By using both, able to rule out possibility that something other than the manipulation produced the results observed  Quick Review  Naturalistic observation  Survey research  Archival research 1. Sitting on a street corner and observing whether men or women wear seat belts more often is an example of what type of research? ______________________ 2. Examining college admissions records from the year 2005 to determine what percent of minorities were admitted is an example of what type of research? _________________ 3. Asking questions to random people in the mall about the brand of shoes they prefer is an example of what type of research? ____________________ Independent & Dependent Variables Independent variable – Variable/condition that is manipulated by experimenter Dependent variable – Variable that is measured and expected to change as result of changes caused by experimenter’s manipulation of the independent variable – Dependent on the actions of the participants/subjects – Example: Whether people with colds are given med or not (independent variable) and whether they remained sick or got better days later (dependent variable)  Random Assignment Participants are assigned to different experimental groups/”conditions” on the basis of chance and chance alone – Equal chance that participant characteristics will be distributed across various groups  Replication When research is repeated, sometimes using other procedures, in other settings, and with other groups of participants Increases confidence in the validity of the results of any single experiment The Ethics of Research Guidelines – Protected from physical and mental harm – Right to privacy – Voluntary participation – Participants informed of the procedures of the experiment BEFORE it begins Informed Consent – Document that affirms they have been told about details of study; aware of what is included; risks; and that participation is voluntary and can end at any time  Experimental Bias Factors that distort how the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment Experimenter expectations: experimenter unintentionally transmits cues to participants about the way they are expected to behave – Actually cause expected result to happen Participant expectations: participant forms their own hypotheses, and produces an effect Placebo – Prevents experimental bias – A false treatment – Pill, "drug”, or other substance without any significant chemical properties/active ingredient – Any differences in outcome are attributed to quality of drug and not possible psychological effects of being administered a pill/other substance