Chapter 1 & 2 Introduction to Linguistics PDF

I. LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS Objectives: At the end of Chapter I, the students should be able to: 1. Discuss the scientific study of language in relevance to language teaching, learning, and benefits to community and society; 2. Differentiate the views on language st...

I. LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS Objectives: At the end of Chapter I, the students should be able to: 1. Discuss the scientific study of language in relevance to language teaching, learning, and benefits to community and society; 2. Differentiate the views on language study in order to explain further possible language origins and language teaching methods; 3. Define, compare and contrast the components of grammar; and 4. Share arguments and contentions on the incidence of various Englishes. A. LINGUISTICS AS THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE ENGAGEMENT: Please take a look at the following list. Do the statements sound familiar to you? Do you share similar views about language? After analyzing the lists, answer the question below and write your explanation on the space provided. 1. Kids needs to study for years in school to speak their language properly. 2. Writing is more perfect than speech. 3. Women speak better than men. 4. People who say Nobody ain’t done nothin’ can’t think logically. 5. Many animals have languages much like human languages. 6. There are “primitive” languages with only a few hundred words. 7. Native Americans all speak dialects of the same language. 8. The only ways deaf people can communicate are by writing, by reading lips, and by spelling out English with their fingers. 9. Nouns refer to people, places, or things only. 10. International relations would improve if everyone spoke the same language. 11. You can almost always recognize Jews and Blacks by the way they talk. Page | 1  ELABORATION : Why study language? ______________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ LINGUISTICS is the science of language, and linguists are scientists who apply the SCIENTIFIC method to questions about the nature and function of language. Linguists conduct formal studies of speech sounds, grammatical structures, and meaning across all the world’s over 6,000 languages. They also investigate the history of and changes within language families and how language is acquired during infancy. Also, linguists examine the relationship between written and spoken language as well as the underlying neural structures that enable humans to use language. Each human language is a complex of knowledge and abilities enabling speakers of the language to communicate with each other, to express ideas, hypotheses, emotions, desires, and all other things that need expressing. LINGUISTICS is the study of these knowledge systems in all their aspects: how is such a knowledge system structured; how is it acquired, how is it used in the production and comprehension of messages, how does it change over time. Page | 2 LINGUISTICS  It is the study of languages, and as such, is of great importance to language teachers. Linguistics helps teachers convey the origins of words and languages, their historical applications, and their modern day relevance.  Attempts to understand how language is stored in the human behavior through its sister fields of neuroscience, philosophy, psychology, anthropology, sociology, and computer science. CHECK YOURSELF 1: Encircle the letter of your answer in each item. 1. What does it mean to say that LINGUISTICS is SCIENCE? A. The field consists of a set of TRUE facts that can be proven OBJECTIVELY. B. The field uses the scientific method to determine objective rankings of language quality. C. The field uses EMPIRICAL observations to develop theories of language behavior. (empirical means that we observe data to find the evidence for our theories 2. Which of the following kinds of data would a linguist be likely to observe? A. Which method is most effective to help a child stop stuttering. B. Whether Korean includes tones that change the meaning of words. C. How many undergraduates can correctly use the words affect and effect in their essays. D. If second-language speakers can pronounce English words correctly. Page | 3  B. DEFINITIONS OF LANGUAGE (by theorists/linguists) 1. Language is the expression of ideas by means of speech-sounds combined into words. Words are combined into sentences, this combination answering to that of ideas into thoughts.” (Henry Sweet – English phonetician) 2. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.” (Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager – American linguists) 3. Language is a system which relates meanings to substance. Language is a mental phenomenon. It is innate. Man has the genetically imparted ability for language learning. (Noam Chomsky) 4. Language is a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures or marks having understood meanings. (Webster’s New International Dictionary) 5. Language is a system of arbitrary local symbols used for human communication. (Wardaugh) CHECK YOURSELF 2: Copy important word(s)/phrase(s) from each definition in each item that represents/summarizes your 6. Language is a system of arbitrary personal local symbols comprehension which of the permits of definition all language. people in a given culture, or other who have learned the system of that culture, or other 1. people who have learned the system of that culture to communicate or ____________________________________________ interact. (Finnocchiaro) ____________________________________________ 2. ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ 3. ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ 4. ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ 5. ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ Page | 4 THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE (Activity 1: Read and analyze to complete the word puzzle) 1. Language is s__ __ te__a__ic. 2. Language is a set of arbitrary sy__ __ol __. 3. Those symbols are primarily vo__al, but may also be __ is__al. 4. The symbols have conventionalized me__ __in__s to which they refer. 5. Language is used for __ __mm__ni__ati__ __. 6. Language operates in a speech community or __u__t__re. 7. Language is essentially h__m__n, although possibly not limited to human. 8. Language is a__q__ir__d by all people in much the same; language and language learning both have u__i__ __rs__l characteristics. CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE 1. Recursion – Sentences may be produced with other sentences inside them. 2. Arbitrary – The relation between a word and its meaning is a matter of convention. There is no necessary connection between the sounds people use and to objects to which the sounds refer to. 3. Productivity or Creativity – A speaker can produce any number of sentences in his mother tongue. Language allows novelty and innovation in response to new experiences, situations, and thoughts. Language enables a speaker to produce and understand new words, phrases, and sentences as the need arises. 4. Social Phenomenon – Language brings people into relationship with society or environment. 5. Complexity – Language is a part of the culture. No language is intrinsically better or worse than any other language. Page | 5 Activity 2: Choose one of the five (5) characteristics of language and give a specific situational, word, phrase, or sentence examples to illustrate or explain it. Use the space provided below. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE 1. I ____________________ Function or the “I WANT” Function  Speakers use language to let things done. (naming, pronouncing, betting, suggesting, ordering, commanding, directing) 2. R ____________________ Function or “DO AS I TELL YOU” Function  Language is used to control events. (approving, disapproving, answering a phone, setting rules) 3. R ____________________ Function or the “I’VE GOT SOMETHING TO TELL YOU” Function  Language is used to communicate knowledge about the world. (reporting events, making statement, explaining relationships. (reporting events, making statement, explaining relationships, relaying messages) 4. I ____________________ Function or the “ME & YOU” Function  Language is used to ensure social relationships. (greetings, joking, teasing, inviting, parting, accepting) 5. P ____________________ Function  Language is used to express personal concerns. (explaining, endorsement, cursing, expressing, apologizing) 6. H ____________________ Function or the “TELL ME WHY Function”  Language is an instrument in itself in order to acquire knowledge and understanding. (questioning, probing, answering, arguing, concluding, testing, experimenting, defining) 7. I ____________________ Function or the “LET’S PRETEND” Function  Language is used to create imaginary systems of literary work, utopian visions, daydreams) Page | 6 Activity 3: Choose three (3) from the seven (7) functions of language above and illustrate it in a sample sentence or dialogue from newspapers or articles available on the internet or books/comics and any printed materials. Cut and paste below on the given spaces below or copy and write. (5 points each) A. Function: ____________________ B. Function: ___________________ Page | 7 C. Function: _____________________ THE ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGE Divine Perspective According to Judeo-Christian beliefs, the one deity gave Adam the power to name all things. According to the Egyptians, the creator of speech was the god Thoth. Babylonians believed that the language giver was the god Nabu and the Hindus attributed our unique ability to a female god: Brahma was the creator of the universe, but his wife Sarasvati gave language to us. Plato held that at some ancient time, a “legislator” gave the correct, natural name to everything, and that words echoed the essence of their meanings. Beliefs in the divine origin of language is intertwined with the supernatural properties that have been associated with the spoken word. In many religions, only special languages may be used in prayers and rituals such as Latin in the Catholic Church for many centuries. The Hindu priest of the 5 th century B.C. E. believed that the original pronunciation of Vedic Sankrit was sacred and must be preserved. This led to important linguistic study because their language had already changed greatly since the hymns of the Vedas have been written. The first linguist is Panini, who wrote descriptive grammar of Sankrit in the fourth century B.C.E. that revealed the earlier Page | 8 pronunciation, which could then be used in religious worship. Even today, Panini’s deep insights into the workings of language are highly revered by linguists. Although myths, customs, and superstitions do not tell us very much about language origin, they do tell us about the importance ascribed to language. There is no way to prove or disprove the divine origin of language, just as one cannot argue scientifically for or against the existence of deities. The First Language For millennia, the scientific experiments have reportedly been devised to verify particular theories of the first language. The Egyptian Pharaoh Psammetichus (664- 610 B.C.E.) sought to determine the most primitive language by isolating two infants in a mountain hut, to be cared for by a mute servant, in the belief that their first words would be in the original language. They were not. History is replete with similar stories; all such experimentation on children is unspeakably cruel and utterly worthless. Nearly all theories of language origin, however silly and superstitious, contain the implicit belief that all language is originated from a single source—the monogenetic theory of language origin. Opposing to this proposition that language are those in several places, or at several times, in the course of history. Which of these is true, is still debated by linguists. Classification of Language There are about 5000 languages spoken in the world today (a third of them in Africa), but scholars group them together into relatively few families—probably less than twenty. Languages are linked to each other by shared words or sounds or grammatical constructions. The theory is that the members of each linguistic group have descended from one language, a common ancestor. in many cases that original language is judged by the experts to have been spoken in surprisingly recent times— as little as a few thousand years ago. Linguistic groups: from 3000 BC The most widespread group of languages today is the INDO-EUROPEAN, spoken by half the world’s population. This entire group, ranging from Hindi and Persian to Norwegian and English, is believed to descend from the language of a tribe of nomads roaming the plains of eastern Europe and western Asia (in modern terms centering on the Ukraine) as recently as about 3000 BC. From about 2000 BC, people speaking Indo-European languages begin to spread through Europe, eventually reaching the Atlantic coast and the northern shores Page | 9 of the Mediterranean. They also penetrate far into Asia- occupying the Iranian plateau and much of India. Another linguistic group of significance in the early history of west Asia and still of great importance today, is the SEMITIC family of languages. These also are believed to derive from the language of just one tribal group, possibly nomads in southern Arabia. A shared linguistic family does not imply any racial link, though in modern times this distinction has often been blurred. Within the Indo-European family, for example, there is a smaller Indo-Iranian group of languages also known as Aryan, which are spoken from Persia to India. In keeping with a totally unfounded racist theory of the late 19th century, the Nazis chose the term Aryan to identify a blond master race. Blond or not, the Aryans are essentially a linguistic rather than a genetic family. The same is true of the Semitic, including two groups which have played a major part in human history—the Jews and the Arabs. Enclaves of Language On a linguistic map of the world, most of the great language families occupy one distinct and self-contained territory. The two exceptions are the Indo-European and the Finno-Ugric groups. In modern times, the Indo-European languages have spread across the globe- to North and South America, Australia and New Zealand- as a result of European colonialism. But the intermingling of Indo-European and Finno-Ugric, forming a patchwork quilt across Europe, has come about for a different and earlier reason. Finland, together with Estonia on the opposite shore of the Baltic, forms one isolated pocket of the Finno-Ugric group (the Finno part). Hungary is another (the Ugric element) The cause of this wide separation is the great plateau of Europe which Finno- Ugric and Indo-European tribes have shared and fought over through the centuries. The ancestral language of the Finns, Estonians and Hungarians was once spoken in a compact region between the Baltic and the Ural Mountains, until these people were scattered by Indo-European pressure. Page | 10 Copyright : 2007 Daniel M. Short (Pinterest) Language marked with a dagger (+) are EXTINCT. A classification of extinct means that the language has no native (i.e. first language) speakers. It does not necessarily mean that no one can speak the language Latin and German: from the 5th century AD Over the course of history, languages continually INFILTRATE each other, as words are spread by conquest, empire, trade, religion, technology or – in modern times – global entertainment. A good surviving example of this process is the line in western Europe dividing the Romance languages (those deriving from a ‘Roman’ example) from the Germanic tongues. The Romance family includes Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian (the result) of a successful Roman campaign in the 2 nd century AD). The Germanic group is English, Dutch, Flemish, German, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish and Icelandic. Page | 11  This linguistic division exactly reflects the influence of the Roman empire. Italy, France and the Peninsula of Spain were sufficiently stable regions in the Roman world to retain the influence of Latin after the collapse of the empire. The Germanic areas east and north of the Rhine were never fully brought under Roman control (the exact linguistic dividing line survives in modern Belgium, with its population speaking French in the south and Flemish in the north). England was safely within the empire for three centuries. But the Romanized Celts were not strong enough to resist the invading German tribes, the Angels and the Saxons. Their languages prevailed in the form of Anglo-Saxon. Modern English occupies a middle position within the western European family of languages, with its vocabulary approximately half Germanic and half Romance in origin. The reason is not Britannia’s relatively fragile position within the Roman empire. The cause is more recent, in the Normal conquest. After seizing northwest France and adopting the local language, the Normans arrive in England with French as an essential part of their cultural baggage. Several centuries of rule by Norman aristocrats and bureaucrats bring Latin words back into the language of England through the medium of medieval French. Linguistic Evolution The ongoing struggle between languages is a process very similar to evolution. A word, like a gene, will travel and prevail according to its usefulness. A word’s fitness to survive may derive from being attached to a desirable new invention or substance, or simply from being an amusing or useful concept. ‘Aspirin’, coined in 189 9 by its German inventor from the opening letters of Acetylirte Spirsaure (acetylated spiraeic acid), immediately became an international word. In a less serious context ‘snob’ first given its present meaning in English in the mid-19th century, is now naturalized in a great many languages. As with evolution, the development of language is an irresistible force – though traditionalists invariably attempt to build barriers against change. The useful word ‘hopefully’ (long available to Germans as hoffentlich, and meaning ‘it is to be hoped that’) has in recent years been steamrollered into the English language by the public against howls of protest from the purists. On a grander scale, the French government from time to time legislates ineffectually against English words straying into French. These are the hybrids described as franglais. A good example of their impertinence is the enticing notice on a tweed jacket seen in a Parisian shop window: Tres snob, Presque cad (very snob, almost cad). Page | 12  The imperial power underpinning American English as a lingua franca is for the first time cultural and economic rather than military. The pattern of history insists that English is not likely to be the world’s final lingua franca. It is also true to say that the predominance of English depends on its spread rather than the total number speaking it. One of the great advantages of English is that it is easy to speak at a simple level, though immensely complex in its idiom. New languages from old Meanwhile, the evolution processes go on. There are already many varieties of English in use. The pidgin English flourishing in New Guinea is baffling to an outsider; originally devised as a practical business language, reduced to its simplest elements, it has evolved its own rich character. In the same way, English-speaking communities in the West Indies or in India have developed local words, phrases and constructions which give their own version of the language a special color. Page | 13  HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE Note: Other sources you may want to view/watch through Youtube: TED-Ed – Where did English come from? By Claire Browern (4:54 minutes) The figure below shows the timeline of the history of the English language. The earliest known residents of the British Isles were the Celts, who spoke Celtic languages—a separate branch of the Indo-European language family tree. Over the centuries, the British Isles were invaded and conquered by various peoples, who brought their languages and customs with them as they settled in their new lives. There is now very little Celtic influence left in English. The earliest time when we can say that English was spoken was in the 5 th century CE (Common Era—a politically correct term used to replace AD). “England” < “Engla Land” < - “Angle Land” (Land of the Angles, a people of northern old Germany) was derived from those who live on in the district of England named East Anglia, and also in the Anglican Church. In the present day, there is still a region of Germany known as Angeln, which is likely the same area from which the original angles came. Angeln lies in Schleswig-Holstein on the eastern side of the Jutland peninsula near the cities of Flensburg and Scheswig. American English Canadian English Australian English British English Irish English Scottish English Indian English Page | 14  C. COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE according to D. Hymes Note: You may download the reference on slideshare at https://www.slideshare.net uploaded by De Guzman, Mia. Origin The idea was originally derived from Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. He defined these terms as: Competence – It is the ability of native speakers to create and understand grammatical sentences, to detect deviant and ungrammatical sentences, and to make other linguistic judgments about utterances in their language. It is the shared knowledge of ideal speaker-listener set in a completely homogenous. Performance – It is the actual utterances produced by speakers of a language. It is the process of applying underlying knowledge to actual language use. Should be given under ideal circumstance, the ideal speaker-listener knows and uses language perfectly without making any mistakes. COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE  Chomsky (1965) described communicative competence as the account sufficiently for the social and functional rules of language.  It is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user’s grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about HOW and WHEN to USE utterances appropriately. Communicative Competence: Real People Using Real Language The term communicative competence was coined in 1966 by linguistic anthropologist Dell Hymes (1927-2009) in order to develop a more inclusive way to think about and describe the way people use language in real situations. Designed to go beyond the restrictive definition of linguistic competence, the concept of communicative competence refers to a speaker’s ability to speak a language well in a variety of social situations. Communicative competence means knowing how grammar, vocabulary, and even accent can change depending on who you are Page | 15 speaking to and in what situation. It means knowing about status and power relationships and how they affect what you can say and how you can say it. It means knowing how your ideologies—your taken-for granted ideas and stereotypes about language, gender, ethnicity, social class, relative power, and more—can affect the way you speak to and listen to the people around you. Developing communicative competence in a language empowers you in important ways. It helps you to understand how to make your voice heard in a conversation and how to make your voice heard in such a way that people will pay attention, acknowledge your contribution, and give you credit for your ideas. It helps you to know how to address friends as well as strangers and to greet people appropriately. It helps you to learn how to ask for favors and how to accept or reject invitations. The idea of communicative competence provides an important tool for understanding and describing how real people USE and attend to real language in REAL SITUATIONS. Page | 16 CHECK YOURSELF 3: To check your comprehension of communicative competence in relation to linguistics, kindly answer the following questions with yes or no. This activity is not to be recorded but a requirement. 1. Role-play activities for speaking, letters for writing, note-taking, and summarizing are some of the activities that teachers can use to evaluate the learner’s competence. _____ 2. Communicative competence is needed in order to understand communication ethics; to develop cultural awareness; to use computer-mediated communication; and to think critically. _____ CHECK YOURSELF 4: Encircle the letter of the correct answer for the question below (5 points each). 1. How does Hymes define communicative competence? A. The empirical study of how people talk in naturally occurring conversations. It is knowing how much they know and how well they speak. B. The ability to recognize and repair communication breakdowns before, during, or after they occur. For instance, the speaker may not know a certain word, thus will plan to either paraphrase, or ask what that words is in the target language. C. The intuitive functional knowledge and control of the principles of language Usage..”a normal child acquires knowledge of sentences not only as grammatical, but also as appropriate. He or she acquires competence as to when to speak, when not, and as to what to talk about with whom, when, where, in what manner.” D. The knowledge of the language code, i.e. its grammar and vocabulary, and also of the conventions of its written representation (script and orthography) 2. Communicative competence does NOT include: A. The grammatical rules to speak like a native-speaker B. How one may talk to people of different statuses and roles C. What nonverbal behaviors are appropriate in various contexts D. What the routines are for turn taking are in conversation Page | 17 WORLD ENGLISHES (WE) WE actually stands for the localized varieties of English as they are used or spoken in certain areas. In the Asian context, the concept was introduced by BRAJ KACHRU. The famous “Three Concentric Circles of Asian Englishes” attributed to Kachru presents the three circles: Inner Circle with ENL (English as a native language) member countries; the Outer Circle with ESL (English as a Second Language) member countries; and the Expanding Circle with EFL (English as a Foreign Language) member countries. The Expanding Circle e.g. China Caribbean Countries Egypt Indonesia Israel Japan Korea Nepal Saudi Arabia South Africa South America Taiwan CIS Zimbabwe The Outer Circle e.g. Bangladesh Ghana India Kenya Malaysia Nigeria Pakistan Philippines Singapore Sri Lanka Tanzania Zambia The Inner Circle e.g. USA UK Canada Australia New Zealand Three Concentric Circles of English Source: Madrunio, M. and Martin, I. (2018) Page | 18   It is then to be understood that people have different LINGUISTIC and CULTURAL backgrounds making intercultural communication a significant VARIABLE in communication.  The STRUCTURAL characteristics of these NEW VARIETIES differ. This is brought about by the mother tongue or home languages of those who learn or acquire English. Even in terms of social features, differences can also be highlighted in that there is a continuum of basilectal, mesolectal, an acrolectal varieties of English within the same speech community.  ACROLECT – It comes closest to the standard.  BASILECT – It digresses thoroughly from it and comes closest to the PIDGIN.  MESOLECT (or the middle variety) – It is a midway between the acrolect and basilect.  EDULECTS – It is the term use by Bautista and Gonzalez (2006) for the varieties resulting from certain types of education ascertained by social class but are conveyed or transferred by the kind of instruction of the school system especially for those coming from higher-income families and/or better educated classes. WHY VARIETIES OF ENGLISH (STRUCTURAL VARIATION)?  Varieties are INFLUENCED by the LOCAL LANGUAGE(s) in various areas of their: 1. grammars 2. exhibit of specific phonological, lexical, syntactic, and discoursal characteristics Circle Variety/ Example A Example B Example C Characteristics Outer and observe syllable- Nigerians say Do not make any Do not observe Expanding timed rhythm ‘success for changes in their initial Circle rather than suc’cess pronunciation to aspiration of stress-timed Indians and make a distinction voiceless rhythm Nigerians say between nouns plosives such recog’nize for and verbs in pairs as p,t,k and ‘recognize which Inner Circle perceived by countries observe: Inner Circles ‘import and as b,d,g im’port Page | 19  Expanding Japanese Circle speakers do not properly distinguish between r and l Syntax: Circle Variety/ Characteristics Outer and Expanding Question-Answering Systems: Circle Observes the agreement-disagreement system which poses difficulty to speakers who follow the positive- negative system particularly in interpreting the yes or no of the response unless it is followed by a clarification (i.e., Yes, I think you’re right; No, that’s not so) Inner Circle Question-Answering Systems: Observes the positive-negative system where the answer follows the polarity of the question (i.e., If the question is in the positive, the answer confirming the assumption of the questioner is in the positive, and the answer disconfirming the assumption is in the negative. If, however, the question is in the negative, the answer confirming the assumption of the questioner is in the negative as well, while the answer disconfirming the assumption of the questioner is in the positive) Lexicon: Vocabulary words peculiar only to some English varieties in Southeast Asia can be noted as seen in the following examples: Country/Variety Vocabulary Meaning 1. Singapore actsy ‘show off’ English missy ‘nurse’ chop ‘rubber stamp’ marina kids ‘youngsters who spend their leisure time at or around Marina Square, a shopping center graduate mothers ‘graduate (well-educated) married women, encourage to have more children and accorded certain privileges in Singapore’ as compared to non-graduate mothers Page | 20 2. Philippine deep ‘puristic or hard to understand’ as an English attribute of language stick ‘cigarette’ high blood ‘tense or upset’ blow out ‘treating someone with a snack or meal’ motel ‘a hotel used for pre-marital or extramarital affairs’ manualized ‘to prepare manuals’ go ahead ‘leave before others with host’s permission’ studentry ‘student body’ ‘a Filipino perceived to be too pro- Amboy American’ ‘from the province’ promdi ‘box where Filipinos returning from abroad balikbayan box put all their shopping’ 3. Malaysian antilog ‘a male hated by a girl’ English popcorn ‘a loquacious person’ kachang ‘peanuts, easy’ slambar ‘’relax’ red spot, open shelf ‘girls who are popular and those who are not’ day bugs ‘those who come to attend school but do not live in residence halls’ CHECK YOURSELF 5: Please answer the following question on the space provided (10 pts): What is the importance of INTERCULTURAL communication? ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Page | 21  Source: Madrunio, M. and Martin, I. (2018) Activity 4: Watch news on BBC and CNN International. If not, recall English words and their corresponding British variety/counterpart. Make a list of vocabulary items using the table below: BBC CNN International (British English (American English) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Source: Madrunio, M. and Martin, I. (2018) Note: QUESTIONS for Chapter Quiz will be given on the first part of the copy of the next chapter. Page | 22  II. PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY: A Review Objectives: 1. Differentiate linguistic terms in phonology (pronunciation vs. articulation, vowels vs. consonants, etc.) 2. Produce vowel, consonant, and diphthong sounds correctly and fluently. 3. Identify vowel sounds according to placement in the tongue and consonant sounds according to place, manner and voicing. 4. Produce sounds with proper effective voice elements. 5. Demonstrate knowledge of segmentals and suprasegmentals. 6. Create a teaching-learning material (i.e. listening recording) for phonology study. A. Phonetics vs. Phonology vs. Pronunciation vs. Articulation Term Meaning Phonetics It is the study of SPOKEN language – the consonants and vowels, and the melodies and rhythms, of speech. Although these aspects of language can be studied by measuring sound waves, mouth movements, or hearing capabilities, one of the earliest and most prevalent tools of phonetic study is impressionistic phonetic transcription. One of the most interesting aspects of phonetics is figuring out which sounds are possible in speech. Phonetics seeks to understand why some mouth noises exist in language while others do not. What seems possible or natural in speech is often influenced by our native language. Ex: “You say tomato, I say tomahto” It is more specifically, the study of HOW speech sounds are produced, what their physical properties are, and how they are interpreted. It concerns itself with the ways in which languages make use of sounds to distinguish words from each other. Phonology Two languages can have all the same phones and yet the languages may not sound the same. The explanation lies in each language’s use of its INVENTORY OF SOUNDS. Page | 23  Phonology studies the distribution of sounds in a language and the interactions between those different sounds. It INVESTIGATES the organization of speech sounds in a particular language. In phonology, classification of phonological rules are learned. Articulation It is the motion or POSITIONING of some part of the vocal tract (often, but not always, a muscular part like the tongue and/or lips) with respect to some other surface of the vocal tract in the production of a speech sound. Articulators are the parts of the vocal tract that are used to produce speech sounds (e.g. lips, tongue, velum). Source: Language Files by Stewart and Vaillette , 8th Ed. (2001) Teachers should be knowledgeable about the phonetics and phonology of English because: 1. the sound system is primary and the basis for the spelling system; 2. they may have to teach English pronunciation to students who are not native speakers of English; 3. they may have to teach poetry, which requires that they teach about rhyme, alliteration, assonance, and other poetic devices that manipulate sound; 4. it is important to understand accents and language attitudes about them to students; 5. we are so literate that we tend to “hear” the sounds of our language through its spelling system, and phonetics/phonology provides a corrective to that; and 6. phonetics and phonology provide systematic and well-founded understandings of the sound patterns of English. Page | 24   Aticulatory Phonetics Simultaneously, an alphabet developed by the International Phonetics Association (IPA) will be used to refer to sounds quite precisely. Symbols Used: [ ] – [brackets]. It is used when we want to indicate that letters are to be interpreted as phonetic symbols, we enclose them in square brackets. < > -. It is used when we want to indicate that letters are to be interpreted as letters from an ordinary spelling system. The phonetic alphabet uses many of the letters of the English alphabet, but their pronunciations are very restricted and are not always the ones you might expect. In this system, there are no “SILENT” letters –every phonetic symbol represents an actual sound. Every letter always has the same pronunciation, and no sounds are represented by more than one letter. To make fine distinctions, phoneticians add special symbol, called DIACRITICS, to the basic letters. English speech sounds are formed by forcing a stream of air out of the lungs through the oral or nasal cavities, or both. This air stream provides the energy for sound production in the mouth—either by making the VOCAL FOLDS VIBRATE or by making hissing or popping noises as air escapes through narrow openings in the mouth. Sounds created by stream mechanism. Page | 25   The Speech Production Mechanism B. Consonant Sounds (Segmentals) vs. Vowel Consonants  Include the sounds we represent as:  All consonants are produced by entirely or almost entirely STOPPING the airstream coming from the lungs. When we almost entirely stop the airstream, we force it through such a narrow opening that the airflow at that point is turbulent and noisy. Page | 26   Classifications of Consonants according to the following characteristics: a. whether or not the vocal folds are vibrating (voicing); b. whether the sound is made with a fully stopped or merely constricted airstream (its manner of articulation); c. where in the mouth the stoppage or constriction is made (its place of articulation); d. whether or not air is flowing through the nasal cavity (nasality); f. whether or not the lips are pursed (lip-rounding) When describing a consonant, it is necessary to provide information especially about the three differences aspects of the articulation of the consonant written above. It is summarized as: 1. Is the sound voiced or voiceless? 2. Where is the airstream constricted? (Place of Articulation) 3. How is the airstream constricted? (Manner of Articulation) 1. VOICING  Sounds produced with vibrating vocal folds are said to be VOICED; those produced without vocal cord vibration are VOICELESS. Exercise: Make the sound fffffff and keep it going for a count of five. Now make the sound vvvvvv, and keep it going for a count of five. Now alternate these two: ffffffvvvvvffffffvvvvv. You probably noticed that vvvvv had “buzz” that fffff did not have. The “buzz” is caused by the vibrating of your vocal folds—which you can check putting your fingers on your throat or by covering your ears as you alternate fffff and vvvvv. Page | 27 Examples: Voiced Voiceless by [b] pie [p] my [m] wet [w] vie [v] fie [f] thy [ð] thigh [θ] die [d] tie [t] nigh [n] zip [z] sip [s] lie [l] rye [r] beige [ʒ] bash [ʃ] jive [dʒ] chive [ tʃ ] yet [j] guide [g] kite [k] gong [ŋ] hive [h]  Double Consonants – tell how the vowel before them is to be pronounced Ex: tapping - taping Exercise: Identify the sound represented by each of the following phonetic symbols. [p, b, f, v, s, z, ] Activity 5: Quiz online/offline. Please standby for an announcement or posting. Page | 28 2. NASALITY Make the sound represented in the word Pam and continue it for some seconds. As you continue it, pinch your nose and observe what happens to the sound. It should immediately. This shows that air was flowing through your nose as you produced this sound. Examples: [m] Pam clammy mat [n] pan clannish Nat [ŋ ] pang clingy --- 3. MANNER OF ARTICULATION A. Stops – is made by obstructing the airstream completely in the oral cavity. Notice that when you say [p] and [b] your lips are closed together for a moment, stopping the airflow. [p] and [b] are bilabial stops. [b] is a voiced bilabial stop. [t], [d], [k] and [g] are also stops.  Question for review or analysis: What is the three-part description (voicing, place, and manner) of each? B. Fricatives – are made by forming a nearly complete obstruction of the vocal tract. The opening through which the air escapes is very small and as a result, a turbulent noise is produced (much as air escaping from a punctured tire makes a hissing noise). Such a turbulent, hissing mouth noise is called FRICTION, hence the name of this class of speech sounds. [ ʃ ], as in ship, is made by almost stopping the air with the tongue near the palate. It is a voiceless palatal fricative.  Question for review or analysis: How would you describe each of the following: C. Affricates – are made by briefly stopping the airstream completely and then releasing the articulators slightly so that frication noise is produced. This is why phoneticians describe affricates as a sequence of a stop followed by a fricative. English has only two affricates, [tʃ] as in church, and [dʒ] as in judge. [tʃ] is Page | 29 pronounced like [t] followed by [ʃ]. It is a voiceless palatal affricate. [dʒ] is a combination of [d] and [z] D. Nasals – are produced by lowering the velum and thus opening the nasal passage to the vocal tract. When the velum is raised against the back of the throat (also called the pharynx wall), no air can escape through the nasal passage. Sounds made with the velum raised are called ORAL sounds. (See examples on nasality, page 27.) These consonants are sometimes classified as nasal stops because, just like the oral stops, there is a complete obstruction in the oral cavity. 4. PLACE OF ARTICULATION – is the area in the mouth at which the consonantal closure or CONSTRICTION occurs. English uses only seven places of articulation: A. Bilabial sounds are made by bringing both lips together to stop the airstream: (Please shade the consonant sounds with a pencil. The first is done for you) pie cupping cup by clubbing cub my coming come B. Labiodental sounds are made by bringing the top teeth into contact with the bottom lip and forcing air between the two to create the fricatives. (Please shade the consonant sounds with a pencil. The first is done for you) feel raffle tough veal ravel dove Page | 30 C. Interdental sounds are made by placing the tip of the tongue between the top and bottom teeth and forcing air through. Again, these are both fricatives: (Please shade the consonant sounds with a pencil. The first is done for you) thigh ether mouth bath (noun) thy either mouth bathe (verb) D. Alveolar sounds are made by bringing the tongue and the alveolar ridge (the bony ridge just behind the top teeth) together to create either a stop or fricative: (Please shade the consonant sounds with a pencil. The first is done for you) sure vicious rush genre vision rouge chin catcher etch gin edger edge E. (Alveo-) palatal sounds are made by bringing the blade of the tongue to, or close to, the alveo-palatal area of the roof of the mouth to create fricatives and affricates: (Please shade the consonant sounds with a pencil. The first is done for you) sure ether mouth bath (noun) thy either mouth bathe (verb) F. Velar sounds are created by stopping the airstream by bringing the back of the tongue into contact with the velum. (Please shade the consonant sounds with a pencil. The first is done for you) could backer tuck good bagger tug ------ banger tongue Page | 31 G. Glottal sounds are created by either narrowing the vocal folds sufficiently to create a fricative or closing them to create a stop. hat cahoots butter (some varieties of English H. Approximants are sounds made by narrowing the oral cavity but not enough to cause turbulence in the airstream; the airstream is said to be smooth. The narrowest point in the airstream is wider in approximants than in fricatives, but is not as wide as it is in vowels. Approximants are more sonorant (resonant, i.e. , naturally loud) than consonants, but less so than vowels. They are like consonants in that they typically occur before or after the vowels of syllables. English has three kinds of approximants: 1. Lateral – are made by touching the tongue to the alveolar ridge while allowing the air to pass along one or both sides, as in: lack, call, callow 2. Central – are made by raising the sides of the tongue so that the air flows along the center of the tongue, as in: rock, roll, Roy 3. Glide (semivowels) - come in two kinds: palatal and labio-velar Palatal – glides are made by raising the tongue toward the hard palate, close to where the vowel in eat is made. The first sound of yet, yolk, and y’all is a palatal glide, represented phonetically as [j]. Labio-velar – are made by rounding the lips and simultaneously raising the back of the tongue toward the velum, close to where the vowel sound of ooze is made. Labio-velar glides thus have two places of articulation—they are both labial and velar. The first sound of wet, wall, and wink is a labio-velar glide, represented phonetically as [w]. ARTICULATORY DESCRIPTIONS An articulatory description of any consonant or approximant must specify (at least) its place and manner of articulation, whether it is voiced or voiceless, and Page | 32 whether it is nasal or oral. For example, [m] is made at the lips by stopping the airstream, is voiced, and is nasal. These features are represented as: [m] [w] [l] Voicing voiced voiced voiced Place bilabial labio-velar alveolar Manner stop glide lateral approximant Nasality nasal oral oral Example Word: mime wow low Activity 6: You should now be able to provide an articulator description for each of the following sounds. Consult the previous lessons presented. 1. [t] [k] [b] [d] [g] Voicing Place Manner Nasality Example Word: 2. [n] [ŋ] [f] [v] [θ] Voicing Place Manner Nasality Example Word: 3. [ð] [s] [z] [ʃ] [ʒ] Voicing Place Manner Nasality Example Word: Page | 33 4. [tʃ] [dʒ] [l] [r] [h] Voicing Place Manner Nasality Example Word: VOWELS  Vowels include the sounds we ordinarily represent as the letters , as well as a number of other sounds for which the ordinary alphabet has no unique symbols.  Vowels are distinguished from consonants in several ways. Vowels are produced with a smooth, unobstructed airflow through the oral tract.  Differences in vowel quality are produced by different shapes of the oral cavity. Characteristic vowel qualities are determined by: 1. the height of the tongue in the mouth; 2. the part of the tongue raised (front, middle, or back); 3. the configuration of the lips; and 4. the tension of the muscles of the oral tract.  An articulatory description of a vowel must include all of the above features. The Vowels of English Page | 34  Activity 7: Please memorize the figure on page 34, the vowels of English. Prepare for a follow-up activity to be posted by your instructor. 1. Tongue Height – the degrees of openness of vowels eat [i] high ate [e] mid at [æ] low 2. Front and Back Vowels/ Tongue Advancement - Compare the vowel of beat with that of boot. Alternate the words, and then just the vowels. It will be more difficult this time to monitor the activities of your tongue as you shift from one of these to the other, but try anyway. [i] – front vowel [u] – back vowel – descend from high, through mid, to low, in a continuous sequence Examples: coot [u] high = the high back vowel coat [o] mid = the mid back vowel cot [ɑ] low = the low back vowel 3. Lip Rounding – Vowel quality also depends on lip position. Example: two [u] = your lips are rounded tea [i] = unrounded 3 Rounded monophthongs in English: [u] loop [ʊ] foot [ɔ] fall  All other monophtongs in English are UNROUNDED. Page | 35 4. Tenseness – Vowels that are called tense have more extreme positions of the tongue or the lips than vowels that are lax.  [i], as in beat, is high, front, unrounded, and tense.  [ɔ], as in caught, is mid, back, rounded, and lax.  [ɑ], as in cot, is low, back, unrounded, and lax.  [ʌ], as in cut, is mid, central, unrounded, and lax. Note: The “central” and “mid” refer to the same general area in the vocal tract but along different dimensions. IPA Symbols for English Vowels The IPA vowel symbols are typically more difficult than consonants for speakers of English to learn, since they seldom represent the sounds that the corresponding English letters (usually) do. The major vowel symbols, [a], [e], [i], [o], and [u], represent the sounds that the corresponding letters do in the spelling systems of many European languages, such as Spanish and Italian or, to a lesser extent, French or German. (The symbols actually correspond pretty well to the way the letters used to be used in English too. But about five hundred years ago in a major historical change, the Great English Vowel Shift, English speakers changed the way they pronounced many vowels, but kept the spelling the same.) Examples Phonetic Symbols heed, beat [i] who, boot [u] hid, bit [ɪ] hood, book [ʊ] hate, bait [e] hut, but [ʌ] head, bet [ɛ] ahead [ə] had, bat [æ] saw, straw [ɔ] hot, bought [ɑ] hoe, boat [o] Activity 8: Please prepare for a quiz (online/offline) to be announced/posted. Transcription type. Page | 36