Chapter Three: Leadership and Motivation in Policing PDF

# Chapter 3: Leadership and Motivation: What Works ## Part 1: Organizations as Living Entities ### Student Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, the student will: - comprehend what is involved in transforming a "good" police organization into one that is "great". - know the basic leadership...

# Chapter 3: Leadership and Motivation: What Works ## Part 1: Organizations as Living Entities ### Student Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, the student will: - comprehend what is involved in transforming a "good" police organization into one that is "great". - know the basic leadership theories, and how leadership skills are developed. - have a working knowledge of motivating personnel in the workplace and how motivational strategies may be applied in the police agency. - understand the difference between leading and managing. - understand empowerment, its importance for today's policing, and its levels and stages. - be aware of the major roles of police executives using the Mintzberg model of chief executive officers. - be able to explain the basic precepts of strategic thinking and planning for strategic management. - explain what is meant by adaptive change and how it applies to police leaders. - be able to discuss how leadership can fail in a police department. - know which leadership styles are best for the police agency. ### Key Terms and Concepts - Active Sergeants - Leadership Styles - Argyris's Maturity-Immaturity Theory - Legitimate Power - Authority - Managerial Grid - Coercion Power - Conceptual Skills - Consideration - Contingency Theory - Content Theories - Decision-Making Role - Empowerment - Engel's Supervisory Styles - Equity Theory - Expectancy Theory - Force Field Analysis - Expertise Power - Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory - Human Skills - Informational Role - Initiating Structure - Innovative Sergeants - Interpersonal Role - Likert's Leadership Styles - Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - McClelland's Achievement, Power, and Affiliation Theory - Motivation - Ohio State University Studies - Planning Cycle - Power - Process Theories - Reward Power - Situational Leadership - Strategic Management - Strategic Planning - Supportive Sergeants - Sustainable Leadership - Technical Skills - Traditional Sergeants - Transformational Leadership - Trait Theory - University of Michigan Studies - Zone of Indifference - Leadership ### Introduction Previous chapters provided a backdrop to police leadership and management. Chapter 1 provided an overview of the importance of these two administrative concepts and how they fit within the overall police organization. It is important to remember that leadership is a trait that all police officers must possess regardless of their rank or assignment in the department. Obviously, the chief or sheriff must lead the department toward the accomplishment of the department's mission and goals. Unit commanders or managers must lead their officers in a similar fashion; they must ensure that their subordinates capably perform their duties and complete the mission of their units. Individual officers such as patrol officers, detectives, and other sworn officers lead by handling situations and ensuring that these situations are managed in a fashion that results in a positive outcome. Whereas leadership is a process where superiors interact with subordinates to motivate them to complete tasks and responsibilities, management principles, as discussed in Chapter 2, provide a roadmap for accomplishing this important task. Police chiefs, managers, and supervisors must ensure that subordinates follow departmental policies and procedures; they plan strategies and tactics for reaching objectives; they ensure they have the resources to implement their strategies and tactics; they organize their units by issuing personnel assignments that meet the needs of objectives; and they provide supervision by observing subordinates' actions and issuing orders and direction when necessary. Thus, management and leadership are interrelated. One cannot be a good leader without being a good manager and the opposite is also true. This chapter examines motivation as well as leadership. Motivation is an innate quality within people to work, be productive, or to accomplish some objective. All police officers must be motivated to effectively carry out their assignments. Police work is not like an assembly line where work is strictly controlled and monitored. Police officers have immense discretion, and we depend on them to accomplish their assignments effectively. As discussed below, leaders have the ability to motivate subordinates and must do so if the department is effective. It is important to remember that behind every good practice lies a good theory. Theory and practice are inextricably intertwined. Thus, we look at the primary theories behind employee satisfaction, motivation, and leadership. We might also point out that many books examine leadership theories in length; thus, in this chapter we limit our coverage to comparatively brief overviews of related theories for policing. ### Police Officials as Leaders #### A Problem of Definition Leadership is the heart and soul of any organization. The idea of leadership has been with us for quite a long time yet widespread debate and disagreement as to its characteristics and meaning continue. As Bennis and Nanus observe, there has been long-standing difficulty in defining leadership: "Like love, leadership is something everyone knows exists, but nobody could define." It is clear that leadership is elusive, and everyone in a supervisory or managerial position must make every attempt to possess it. Early ideas about leadership assumed that it was a matter of birth; the so-called Great Man theory of leadership. Leaders were born into leadership positions (ex. monarchs). History has shown, however, that many of these born leaders were actually ineffective. When this view failed to explain leadership, it was replaced by the notion that great events made leaders because they excelled in extraordinary situations. Moses, Julius Caesar, Martin Luther, Abraham Lincoln, Winston Churchill, Harry Truman, Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., and many others sought to assert their influence when time and social events intersected to make them great leaders. This definition is also inadequate because there have been many instances requiring a leader but one has failed to materialize. For example, one might conjecture that police executives failed to exert proper leadership during the riots that have occurred in the aftermath of police shootings or during crime sprees. Still others postulated that great leaders possessed traits such as intelligence, had specific personalities, were political savvy, and so on. However, one can conjure an extensive list of traits or qualities, and in the end, few people will possess all the traits that can be envisioned. The word leadership is widely used and has resulted in as many definitions as there have been studies of the subject. Some commonly used definitions include the following: - "Leadership is the process of directing the behavior of others toward the accomplishment of some objective." - "The process of influencing the activities of an individual or a group in efforts toward goal achievement in a given situation." - "The process of directing and influencing the task-related activities of group members." ### Developing Leadership Skills Katz identified three essential skills that leaders should possess: technical skills, human skills, and conceptual skills. **Figure 3-1** illustrates these skills and how they apply to managers and supervisors. Notice that technical skills are most important at the lower supervisory ranks while conceptual skills preoccupy the higher ranks in an organization. Katz defined a skill as the capacity to translate knowledge into action in such a way that a task is accomplished successfully. Each of these skills, when performed effectively, results in the achievement of objectives and goals, which is the primary thrust of management and supervision. #### Technical Skills Technical skills are those a manager needs to ensure that specific tasks are performed correctly. They are based on proven knowledge, procedures, or techniques. A supervisor's technical skills may involve knowledge in areas such as high-risk tactics, law, and criminal procedures. The police sergeant usually depends on training and departmental policies for technical knowledge. The areas in which managers need technical skills include computer applications, budgeting, strategic planning, labor relations, public relations, and human resources management. The manager must also have knowledge of the technical skills required for the successful completion of tasks that are within his or her command. Finally, top management must understand how technology can enhance a department's ability to accomplish its mission and goals. #### Human Skills Human skills involve working with people and include being thoroughly familiar with what motivates employees and how to utilize group processes. Katz visualized human skills as including "the executive's ability to work effectively as a group member and to build cooperative effort within the team he leads." Katz added that the human relations skills involve tolerance of ambiguity and empathy. Tolerance of ambiguity means that the manager is able to handle problems when insufficient information precludes making a totally informed decision. Empathy is the ability to put oneself in another's place or to understand another's plight. The practice of human skills allows a manager to provide the necessary leadership and direction, ensuring that tasks are accomplished in a timely fashion and with the least expenditure of resources. Sergeants need more human relations skills since they are constantly dealing with a number of subordinates as well as citizens interacting with their officers. Middle managers require a lower level of human relations skills as their focus is more on programs and unit activities; they have less involvement in dealing with human relations problems. Finally, chiefs are more involved with conceptual skills, running the department. #### Conceptual Skills According to Katz, conceptual skills involve "coordinating and integrating all the activities and interests of the organization toward a common objective." Katz considered such skills to include "an ability to translate knowledge into action" and emphasized that these skills can be taught to actual and prospective managers and supervisors. Thus, good managers and supervisors are not simply born but can be trained to assume their responsibilities. All three of these skills are present in varying degrees for each management level. As one moves up the hierarchy, conceptual skills become more important and technical skills less important. The common denominator for all levels of management is human skills. In today's unionized and litigious environment, it is inconceivable that a manager or supervisor could neglect the human skills. ### Authority, Power, and Leadership While considering the nature of leadership, it is important to remember that organizations exist to accomplish missions and goals that citizens cannot achieve alone. Within police organizations, employees are granted the authority and power to morally and legally accomplish their tasks. Authority and power are related but separate concepts, however. Authority is a grant made by the formal organization to a position, which the person occupying that position wields in carrying out his or her duties. For example, a lieutenant has more authority than a sergeant, and a captain or higher- ranking officer has more authority than a lieutenant. This does not mean that the person in an authority position is automatically able to influence others to perform. As Bernard suggested, subordinates must accept a superior's authority for maximum efficacy. Power is the foundation of leadership and it consists primarily of the ability to sanction others for inadequate performance. It is a necessary ingredient in influencing others to act or perform. While the leader whose subordinates refuse to follow is not totally without power (subordinates may be reprimanded, suspended, terminated, fined, and so on), such power must be used judiciously; both invoking it without just cause or failing to invoke it when necessary may contribute to a breakdown in discipline and performance, morale problems, and other negative side effects. Power also arises in the informal side of an organization; members of a work group give one or more of their members power by virtue of their willingness to follow them on the basis of that person's charisma, experience, or heroism. For example, new patrol officers may seek advice from a veteran peer officer as opposed to going to their sergeant. Within any organization, people can exhibit different types of power. #### Types of Power Power is not static. Its use will vary over time, and a superior officer may use different types of power depending on the situation. Essentially, power is used to influence others. The following are the types of power that can be used. 1. **Reward power** is the ability to provide subordinates something of value for their exemplary services, for examples, salary increase, high performance appraisals, new equipment, desired days off, compliments, and so on. Reward power is not a bribe, but is given for extraordinary performance; it serves to motivate. 2. **Coercion power** is the opposite of reward power. It is the ability to punish someone for inadequate service. When coercion power is used, it generally entails using a department's disciplinary system. 3. **Legitimate power** comes from an individual's authority or position in the organization. For example, a police captain as a consequence of his or her position is vested with a level of power. In other words, position results in recognition and power. 4. **Expertise power** comes with someone's familiarity and ability to perform some task or function. For example, evidence technicians are lower-level employees, but they derive power at crime scenes as a result of their knowledge of evidence. Expertise power is distributed throughout the police organization. 5. **Referent power** comes from people having personal relationships with others who have power. For example, if the mayor's son is a police officer, he likely would receive more deference as compared to other police officers. Many police officers attempt to develop personal relations with higher-ranking officers to gain referent power, which can be used for promotions, specialized assignments, and so on. ### Focus on: The Aurora Police Department's Youth Empowerment Program Generally, when we think of empowerment, we consider various employee groups within the police organization. For example, we might want to empower patrol officers to make better decisions when dealing with a crime or disorder problem. However, we may want to empower citizens so they can be more responsible citizens. The Aurora Police Department (Colorado) developed a unique program to empower the youths in the city. Essentially, the department developed a booklet that provided youths with guidance on a number of topics, including their rights, why people get pulled over, dating advice, understanding traffic laws and criminal laws, and preventing suicide. We know that many citizens are not knowledgeable about the police and the law. If we educate them, we are less likely to have problems with them. Hopefully, the booklet will help youths to understand the various problem circumstances that they find themselves in. In the same vein, we need to educate to empower our police officers. When they know what a police department is doing and why it is doing it, they are more likely to abide by the policies. ### Empowerment Today, much is being written about the importance of empowerment, which is also known as participative management or dispersed leadership. Today's officers are more highly trained and educated in a variety of subjects and have learned to think independently. Therefore, today's policing - particularly in this community policing and problem-solving era - demands the self-initiated thinking, innovation, and freedom that result from employee empowerment. Certainly, the greater acceptance of community policing by the rank and file may directly hinge on officers having greater latitude and authority. Officers at all levels, top management, middle management, and supervisors, should recognize that empowering employees offers the benefits of decreased work-related stress, increased job satisfaction, higher employee involvement and contributions, and positive outcomes. Empowerment may range from the delegation of power (such as allowing officers flexibility to change work hours meeting with citizen groups, selecting equipment for a particular function, or serving on a temporary crime task force) to simply having more communication, goal setting, and feedback. But with greater empowerment comes greater accountability; skilled supervisors must carefully balance both and not vest too much attention to one, thus tipping the scale and causing problems; excessive freedom may cause workers to feel alienated or confused, while too much oversight can lead to micromanagement and thus foment low morale. Leaders must pursue a balance when empowering subordinates. According to Gove, those police leaders striving to empower their employees will find guidance from the situational leadership model (discussed below). In its most basic framework, the model details a continuum of leader and follower actions that progresses through four cycles, shown in **Figure 3-2**. **Figure 3-2** shows the process beginning with the "telling" supervisor, who provides specific instructions and closely monitors the performance of his or her subordinates; the supervisor then moves into a "selling" phase, where communication becomes more open, leaders seek ideas from subordinates, employees are granted more "buy-in" with decision making, and praise and recognition are used. The third phase, "participating," involves officers becoming more confident and sharing ideas; joint decision making becomes more frequent, and supervision is not invasive. Finally, the delegating phase involves very little supervisory oversight (while employees are held accountable for their actions and decisions); trust and accountability are balanced properly. The end result involves much more than merely delegating tasks; it culminates in a more confident, self-directed, and motivated officer. ### Applying Mintzberg's View of Leaders Police leadership actually encompasses many roles. Police chief executives, many middle managers, and supervisors practice behaviors and tasks as set forth by Henry Mintzberg. Following is an overview of the roles assumed and tasks performed by the leaders of the police agency using the Mintzberg model's interpersonal, informational, and decision-maker roles as an analytic framework. #### The Interpersonal Role The manager's interpersonal role includes leadership and liaison or human relations duties. The leadership function requires the manager to motivate and coordinate workers while attaining different goals and needs within the department and the community. For example, a chief or sheriff may have to urge the governing board to enact a code or ordinance that, whether popular or not, is in the best interest of the jurisdiction. The chief executive also serves as a liaison with all elements in the community. Middle managers must lead their subordinates to accomplish goals. This entails the development of interpersonal relations with subordinates and superiors. Here, middle managers serve as linking pins between top management and subordinate units. Finally, supervisors must lead their officers daily to ensure that tasks are performed and contribute to the department's mission. This entails developing a positive relationship with subordinates so that sergeants' authority and assignments are accepted and followed. #### The Informational Role The informational role involves the monitoring/inspecting and disseminating information and acting as spokesperson. In the monitoring/inspecting function, managers constantly examine the workings of the department and its various units to ensure that they are operating effectively. Many police chiefs monitor their departments by reviewing reports about police activities, such as crime rates, crime clearance rates, response time to calls for service, conviction rates, and so on. They also will conduct daily or weekly staff meetings where unit commanders discuss how their units are performing. Middle managers operate in the same ways. They periodically will meet with their supervisors to discuss operations and monitor many of the same statistics that top executives receive. Supervisors are more hands on. They will observe officers in the field and monitor statistics that are relevant to their units. The dissemination tasks involve disseminating vital information to members of the department. This may include e-mails, special orders, general orders, policies, or direct orders. Everyone in the department must know what is expected of them and how they are to perform their responsibilities. Every detail must be clearly communicated. The informational role is best accomplished when all units are linked together. #### The Decision-Maker Role The decision-making role occurs at all levels in the police organization. Chiefs and sheriffs make decisions about policies, priorities, and budgets. For example, if a chief decides to implement a new crime prevention program, he or she must decide how it is to be implemented and how it will be staffed or funded. Middle managers then must make decisions about the responsibilities of the units under their command, and finally, supervisors must make decisions about individual officers' responsibilities. Moreover, situations within the community constantly arise that require decisions at some level, whether it is a tactical situation such as a barricade person or neighborhood community group demanding a greater police presence. Every response to situations requires decisions. ### Strategic Thinking and Planning for Strategic Management Today, it is not enough for police leaders to think in terms of the "current circumstances." The world is changing rapidly, and people who think solely in contemporary terms will quickly find themselves out of date and sync with society. They must think, plan, and manage in what are called strategic terms; current and future perspectives and potential changes must be considered. In order for chiefs to engage in strategic management, they must first be a strategic thinker and planner. This means seeing both emerging trends and their operational implications. Strategic thinking refers to a creative, divergent thought process. It is a mode of strategy making that is associated with reinventing the future. It means that police departments must be proactive; they must anticipate impending changes and respond to them before they become problematic. Concentrating exclusively on the present ultimately places the police at a disadvantage. Strategic thinking is a prerequisite to strategic planning. Both are required in any thoughtful strategy-making process and strategy formulation. The creative, groundbreaking strategies emerging from strategic thinking still have to be operationalized through convergent and analytical thought (strategic planning). Thus, both strategic thinking and strategic planning are necessary, and neither is adequate without the other for effective strategic management. Strategic planning involves more people than the chief executive; critical transformation within an organization should be guided by teams under the direction of strategic managers-command and support staff members who have the expertise, credibility, and competence to move the department in a new and pertinent direction. Officers at lower-ranking levels often have intimate knowledge about impending problems and trends and can provide valuable input into the planning and decision-making processes. Strategic planning is both a leadership tool and a process. It is primarily used for one purpose: to help an organization do a better job-to focus its energy, ensure that members of the organization are working toward the same goals, and assess and adjust an organization's direction in response to a changing environment. Strategic planning is therefore a disciplined effort to produce fundamental decisions and actions that shape and guide what an organization is, what it does, and why it does it, with a focus on the future. Its aim is to achieve competitive advantage. Strategic planning also includes the following elements: - It is oriented toward the future and looks at how the world could be different five to ten years in the future; it is aimed at creating the organization's future. - It is based on thorough analysis of foreseen or predicted trends and scenarios of possible alternative futures. - It thoroughly analyzes the organization, both its internal and external environment and its potential. - It is a qualitative, idea-driven process. - It is a continuous learning process - When it is successful, it influences all areas of operations becoming a part of the organization's philosophy and culture. For police leaders, strategic planning holds many benefits. It can help an agency anticipate key trends and issues facing the organization, both currently and in the future. The planning process explores options, sets directions, and helps stakeholders make appropriate decisions. It facilitates communication among key stakeholders who are involved in the process and keeps organizations focused on outcomes while battling daily crises. Planning can be used to develop performance standards to measure an agency's efforts. Most important, it helps leaders facilitate and manage change (which is the subject of the following chapter). #### Planning Cycle A planning cycle is used for strategic planning-the initial steps to be taken in the process with appropriate involvement by all stakeholders. The process is not fixed, however; it must be flexible enough to allow rapid revision of specific strategies as new information develops. The first step is to identify the planning team, which should include the involvement of the following key stakeholders, both internal and external to the organization: - Department and city leadership: police chief and sheriff executives and other officeholders should be involved. - Department personnel: Supervisors, officers, non-sworn staff members, and all members of the department should be included. - The community: The plan must be developed in partnership with the community it is designed to serve. - Interagency partners: These include both staff and other government agencies and representatives of social welfare agencies. Once strategic information is collected from all stakeholders, the information should be compiled into a strategic planning document. When compiling the information it is critical that the input from the various quarters is collated into a coherent, workable plan. Too often strategic plans consist of pieces that are hobbled together, which inhibits implementation. ### Strategic Management Strategic management is therefore a systems management approach that uses the proper thinking and planning approaches that are discussed above. Community policing, external and internal environments, political influences, homeland security, and new technologies are molding the profession into a highly complex structure. To be successful in this environment, executives need to set their course. Leaders in the organization move change across organizational boundaries. A small team of personnel is assembled to analyze operational functions, identify inefficiencies, review systems integration, and detect gaps in management communications that hinder performance. Major transformation within an organization cannot rest with one person, but should be guided by teams under the direction of strategic managers-command and support staff members who have the expertise, credibility, and competence to get the job done. ### Focus ON: Phoenix Police Chief Has Troubles With the Union The Phoenix police chief experienced difficulties with the union in 2017. The chief began to redeploy detectives and sergeants to cover some of the city's patrol beats. The city increased sales tax over the years, with a substantial portion going to public safety. However, over the last few years city spending as well as an increase in the population has resulted in a reconsideration of the budget. Since 2000, the police department's budget has increased by 118 percent. Also, the number of officers has declined 10 percent, but calls for service declined by 11 percent and the number of reported major crimes declined by 35 percent since 2008. The union complained that the city had not hired enough police officers even though the department was in the process of hiring additional officers, but the union had issues with the reassignment of the detectives and sergeants to patrol. The chief in making the reassignments was attempting to ensure that the city's beats were covered to maintain response times. This demonstrates the difficult situations that many police chiefs face. City councils make demands on the police that are counter to the needs of the rank- and-file officers. These situations highlight the need for leadership in the police department. ### Motivation Theory Motivation generally refers to "the set of processes that arouse, direct, and maintain human behavior toward attaining some goal." This definition implies that motivation consists of several areas. First, "arousal" refers to getting subordinates interested in performing some action. Some people are self-motivated and do not require a stimulus from a supervisor. Others, however, require direction or prodding. Second, this definition implies that people make choices about their behavior, such as about the amount and quality of their work. Management, through policies, direction, and consultation, can assist employees in making the correct choices. Finally, motivation is about maintaining productive behavior. Leaders must strive to have their subordinates work constantly to achieve goals. At its most fundamental level, motivation involves a needs-goal model, in which an individual seeks to fulfill a need. The need is then transformed into some behavior that is directed toward satisfying that need. For example, police officers as a result of their commitment to the profession have an innate need to successfully combat crime and disorder; the police department must facilitate the satisfaction of this need by providing an organization that assists them in satisfying this need. If a person is unable to satisfy a need, he or she becomes frustrated. This frustration may lead to withdrawal and mediocre productivity. When subordinates cannot achieve their goals, problems may arise. Motivating employees on the job is not so simplistic. Therefore, motivation theory helps us understand the why of people's behavior. It is often misunderstood as something that supervisors do to employees. In reality, it is more internal and relates to an individual's needs, wants, and desires. But what exactly sparks an employee's desire to achieve a higher level of performance is not easily identified. What is clear, however, is that what motivates one employee to perform may not motivate another employee. Motivation theories may be divided into two general categories: content theories and process theories. Content theories focus on the individuals' needs, wants, and desires and attempt to explain internal needs that motivate people's behavior. Process theories attempt to explain how people are motivated and focus on the interplay of the individual with forces in the workplace. ### Content Theories: Maslow, Argyris, Herzberg, and McClelland #### Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow founded the humanistic school of psychology during the 1940s. Maslow's work focused on human needs and wants. He viewed people as perpetually wanting in nature and described their needs as insatiable. According to Maslow, people's needs are not random but progress in a "hierarchy of needs" from survival to security, social, ego-esteem, and self-actualization needs. * **Figure 3-4** * Maslow asserted that people are motivated by their lowest level of unsatisfied need. Once a lower need is satisfied, higher needs are sought. An important implication to motivation theory is understanding that a satisfied need is no longer a motivator of behavior. Simply stated, people who have their security needs met, can be motivated only by higher needs. ### Process Theories: Equity Theory and Expectancy Theory In reality, the motivation process is much more complex than is depicted by the needs-goal model, shown in * **Figure 3-3** * as advocated by the content theorists. Content theories focus solely on the individual and what the individual has internalized and, to a great extent, neglect the effects of the work environment on the individual. They place the bulk of responsibility for motivation with the individual worker. They tend to neglect that the police organization has a responsibility for facilitating motivation. #### Adams' Equity Theory Adams perceived that an element of motivation is equity. He explained his equity theory: Evidence suggests that equity is not merely a matter of getting a "fair day's pay for a far day's work," nor is inequity simply a matter of being underpaid. The fairness of an exchange between employee and employer is not usually perceived by the former and simply as an economic matter. There is an element of relative justice involved that supervenes economics and underlies perceptions of equity or inequity. Essentially, employees examine the rewards they receive in relation to the rewards and efforts of others in the organization. If an officer perceives that another officer who is less productive or not a good officer receives greater or similar rewards, the officer may perceive inequity. Similarly, if one officer is not promoted while another officer who is less qualified is promoted, the officer will perceive inequity. Police leaders and managers must consider their reward systems and ensure that rewards are equitable. #### Vroom's Expectancy Theory Vroom's expectancy theory was developed in the 1960s and addresses some of the complexities related to motivation. This theory holds that people are motivated primarily by a felt need that affects behavior; however, Vroom's theory adds the issue of motivation strength - an individual's degree of desire to perform a behavior. * **Figure 3-6** * Vroom's expectancy model is shown in equation form in * **Figure 3-6**. * According to this model, motivation strength is determined by the perceived value of performing a task or job and the perceived probability that the work performed will result in an appropriate reward. That is, an individual is motivated if he or she perceives that the effort will be rewarded and if the value of the reward is equal to or greater than the amount of effort or work. Generally individuals tend to perform the behaviors that maximize rewards over the long term. Expectancy theory suggests that officers who experience success will feel more competent and therefore will be more willing to take risks in improving performance levels. When officers know that certain behaviors will produce anticipated departmental rewards, they are motivated. For example, an officer may be motivated to participate in a community policing project knowing that it could result in a higher performance rating, departmental letter of commendation, or improved promotional prospects. If such rewards are not forthcoming, the officer will be less enthusiastic when participating in similar projects in the future. This discussion of motivation theories demonstrates that motivation is complex. We frequently fail to provide the support and setting to motivate police officers. We too often depend solely on subordinates' innate drive. Leaders should constantly monitor the level of motivation of their subordinates and provide the support to ensure that they are highly committed. ### Leading versus Managing Leading is related to managing. In this chapter, however, we maintain that effective leadership goes well beyond the basic management functions described at the beginning of the chapter. Bennis and Nanus (1985: 21) distinguish between management and leadership: "To be a manager is to bring about, to accomplish, to have charge of, responsibility for, to conduct. Leading, on the other hand, is influencing, guiding in direction, course, action, opinion." They go on to say that managers are people who do things right, and leaders are people who do the right things. Managers are more efficiency-driven and focus on mastering routine activities, while leaders are driven by vision and judgment. Managers tend to be bean counters, while leaders focus on achieving desired results. Another clear distinction between the leader and the manager is organizational consensus on overall goals - having a vision. According to Bennis and Nanus, by focusing attention on a vision, the leader operates on the emotional and spiritual resources of the organization-on its values, commitment, and aspirations. The manager, by contrast, operates on the physical resources of the organization-its capital, human skills, raw materials, and technology. As they put it, Any competent manager can make it possible for people to earn a living [and] see to it that work is done productively and efficiently, on schedule, and with a high level of quality. It remains for the effective leader, however, to help people in the organization know pride and satisfaction in their work. They added: "The essential thing in organization leadership is that the leader's style pulls rather than pushes people on. Leading is a responsibility, and the effectiveness of this responsibility is reflected in the attitudes of the led." We concur that a successful police leader must be a good manager. As Whisenand and Ferguson explained, "If you're a competent manager, you are getting the most out of your resources. If you're a competent leader, you are pointing their energy in the right direction." It is therefore important that the supervisor manage departmental resources in as efficient a manner as possible, while also motivating and inspiring employees to perform to the best of their ability. Therein lies the influential art of leadership that instills the sense of esprit de corps or common purpose that imbues successful cohesive teams. ### Focus ON: The State Police Academy An academy trainee reported that trainees in an Iowa police academy recently were passing a study guide around that contained the actual exam questions. There was no information on how many of the recruits saw the study guide. Nonetheless, the commander of the academy immediately announced that all exams were considered compromised, and all the recruits were required to retake all the exams in order to graduate. The incident raises several questions. Did the academy staff provide the exam to the recruits? If so, it shows a lack of leadership on the part of the staff. It also shows a lack of understanding about the knowledge and skills that are important in police work, knowledge and skills that must be obtained in the academy. Second, what does it say about the integrity of those recruits who had access to the exams? Integrity is an important part of leadership, and these recruits failed the test. ### Leadership Theories We now discuss trait, behavioral, and situational theories that attempt to explain leadership behavior. Whereas trait theories are based on the intrinsic qualities a leader possesses, behavioral theories explain leadership by examining what the leader does. Situational theories maintain that effective leadership is a product of the fit between the leader's traits or skills and the situation in which he or she exercises leadership. Finally, contingency theories, to a degree, merge and extend trait and behavioral theories by examining how the environment or workplace affects leadership and the leader. #### Trait Theory Early leadership studies of the 1930s and 1940s focused on the individual and assumed that some people were born leaders, and that good leaders could be studied to determine the special traits that leaders possess. From an organizational standpoint, this trait theory had great appeal. For example, in the police field it was assumed that all that was needed was for leaders with these special traits to be identified and promoted to managerial positions within the department. For more than 50 years researchers attempted to identify those special traits that separate successful leaders from poor leaders. For example, Davis found 56 different characteristics or traits that he considered important. While admitting it was unlikely that any manager would possess all 56 traits, he said the following 9 traits were required for executive success: intelligence, experience, originality, receptiveness, teaching ability, knowledge of human behavior, courage, tenacity, and a sense of justice and fair play. The age-old assumption that leaders are born and develop their technical, human, and conceptual skills was completely discredited, because researchers have been unable to agree or present empirical evidence to support its claims. There are too many traits that a good leader must possess, and some good leaders possess some of the traits, while other good leaders possess a different set of traits. Additionally, there are traits that both good leaders and bad leaders possess. Consequently, it is now believed that certain traits and skills increase the likelihood that a given person will be an effective manager. There are no guarantees, however. #### Behavioral Theories The behavioral approach focuses on a leader's behavior in relation to the environment. Studies at the University of Michigan and Ohio State University and Blake and Mouton's "managerial grid" led the early research of behavioral theories leadership. These studies were important because they studied leadership in real-life situations. #### University of Michigan Studies The University of Michigan conducted a series of studies of leadership behavior in relation to job satisfaction and productivity in business and industrial work groups. The researchers determined that leaders must have a sense of the task to be accomplished as well as the environment in which the followers worked. They found the following to be the beliefs of a successful leader: 1. The leader assumes the leadership role is more effective relative to managers who fail to exhibit leadership. 2. The closeness of supervision will have a direct bearing on the production of employees. High-producing units had less direct supervision; highly supervised units had lower production. To conclude, employees need some area of freedom to make choices. Given this, they produce at a higher rate. 3. Employee orientation is a concept that involves managers taking an active interest in subordinates. It is the leader's responsibility to facilitate employees' accomplishment of goals. The University of Michigan studies definitively demonstrated the differences between leadership and management. Even though leadership consists of a different set of activities, it is no more important than management. Effective leadership and management must be present in the effective police department. #### The Ohio State University Studies Ohio State University began its study of leadership in 1945 and identified leadership behavior in two dimensions: initiating structure and consideration. Initiating structure referred to supervisory behavior that focused on the achievement of organizational goals and included characteristics such as assigning subordinates to particular tasks, holding subordinates accountable for following rules and procedures, and informing subordinates of what is expected of them. Consideration, on the other hand, consisted of a manager's concern for subordinates. This included behaviors such as a superior's openness concerning subordinates' ideas and