Introduction to Psychology and I-O Psychology

Chapter 1 This chapter, "Introduction to — and applied fields in — psychology and industrial and organisational psychology (I-0 psychology)," aims to introduce the study and practice of I-0 psychology, particularly within the South African context. After studying this chapter, you should be able to...

Chapter 1 This chapter, "Introduction to — and applied fields in — psychology and industrial and organisational psychology (I-0 psychology)," aims to introduce the study and practice of I-0 psychology, particularly within the South African context. After studying this chapter, you should be able to understand several key aspects of psychology and I-0 psychology. Firstly, regarding the nature and study fields of psychology, the chapter defines psychology as the scientific study of human behaviour and all the mental and related processes (feelings, thoughts and actions) that underpin human behaviour in all its possible nuances and contexts. Psychology emphasises the individual as the main unit of study, but also examines human behaviour in social and group contexts, such as work behaviour and organisations. It is both a science and a profession that uses psychological knowledge and methods to understand, influence, and develop human behaviour. Psychology seeks to explain the 'what', 'how', and 'why' of human behaviour across various domains including biological, cognitive, emotional, social, moral, and work behaviour, and also addresses psychological wellness and maladjustment. It uses scientific inquiry and other methods for assessment and information processing to understand and influence human behaviour. Some well-known subfields and applied areas of psychology include clinical psychology, counselling psychology, educational and school psychology, and I-0 psychology, as well as neuropsychology and forensic psychology. Main research areas include developmental, social, experimental, physiological, cognitive, and personality psychology, along with psychometrics. Other subfields mentioned are health, cultural, consulting, environmental, sports, military, therapeutic, and individual psychology, with coaching and mentoring also emerging as applied fields. Secondly, the chapter explains how psychology is related to I-0 psychology and other disciplines. I-0 psychology and related subfields like organisational psychology and human-resource management (HRM) are applied fields related to psychology. While I-0 psychology has developed its own theories, concepts, and practices, it shares a common history with psychology and uses many psychological concepts and practices. Psychology and its subfields often serve as service modules in other academic departments such as natural and medical sciences, building, engineering and design, law, human resources, and marketing. A logical view is to consider psychology as a separate human science that overlaps and supports many other sciences. I-0 psychology specifically utilises much of the theory and methodology of psychology and its subfields to study and influence human behaviour and related processes in workplaces (organisations) to achieve optimal work and business performance. For example, personality psychology, psychological assessment, developmental psychology, and counselling are used in personnel and career psychology, while aspects of clinical, positive, and individual psychology enhance employee and organisational wellness and motivation. Thirdly, the chapter describes the fields of I-0 psychology and related practice areas. I-0 psychology has many subfields, and professionals in these areas work as HR specialists and managers, organisational consultants, lecturers, and researchers in various sectors. Professional activities include selection and placement, training and development, performance appraisal, organisational development, quality of work life (including employee and organisational health), and ergonomics. The main subfields often include:  Organisational psychology: Focuses on work organisations as systems, organisational culture, climate, job satisfaction, motivation, leadership, group behaviour, and organisational change and development.  Personnel psychology: Emphasises the scientific study and application of individual differences in the workplace, including job analysis, recruitment, selection, placement, performance appraisal, compensation, and benefits.  Career/vocational psychology and counselling: Studies and facilitates occupational development throughout a professional life, focusing on career choices, development problems, and the fit between individuals and organisational expectations.  Employment relations: Deals with the psychological aspects of relationships between employers, employees, and trade unions, including negotiation, conflict resolution, and understanding the psychological impact of labour practices.  Ergonomics: Focuses on the interaction between people and their working environment to optimise human well-being and overall system performance by considering physical, cognitive, and social aspects.  Consumer psychology: Applies psychological principles to understand consumer behaviour and preferences in relation to products and services.   Research methodology: Although not a subfield, it's a crucial support area involving the scientific methods used in all areas of I-0 psychology.  Psychological assessment/psychometrics: Another support area focused on developing and using assessment instruments to measure various aspects of human behaviour for selection, development, and research.  Employee and organisational well-being: Focuses on promoting the psychological health, safety, and overall well-being of employees and the organisation.  Human-resource management (HRM): While related, it is not industrial psychology but involves the planning, development, implementation, and evaluation of recruited staff, as well as assisting in labour conflict resolution. Cross-cultural industrial psychology and leadership/management/entrepreneurial psychology are also mentioned as evolving or support areas. Fourthly, regarding examples of tasks, jobs, and careers, these are inherent in the descriptions of the subfields above. For instance, in personnel psychology, tasks include job analysis, developing selection tests, conducting interviews, and managing performance appraisal systems; related jobs include HR generalist, recruitment specialist, and compensation analyst. In organisational psychology, tasks involve diagnosing organisational issues, designing interventions for change, and facilitating team development; related careers include organisational development consultant and management consultant. Career counsellors assist individuals with career planning and development. Ergonomists design and improve work environments. HR professionals handle recruitment, training, employee relations, and policy development. Fifthly, the chapter describes and compares the tasks of I-0 psychologists and human- resource specialists. While both aim to optimise the fit between employees and workplaces, I-0 psychologists are experts in human behaviour and related influencing processes, applying in-depth psychological knowledge (theory, concepts, principles), research, and techniques in the work context. They are trained in psychological assessment, counselling, and therapy. Their roles involve not only applying knowledge but also conducting research to develop and test theories related to work behaviour. HRM often involves the application or supervision/management of personnel, business, and administrative processes. HR professionals may have degrees in HR management or other business disciplines and are typically not registered psychologists, meaning they cannot perform psychological acts like assessment or therapy. However, trained psychologists may be employed in HR positions. The South African Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO) also provides different occupational profiles for organisational psychologists and HR professionals. Sixthly, the chapter outlines the origins of I-0 psychology in general and in South Africa in particular. Internationally, I-0 psychology emerged as an independent field of study and practice in the early 1900s. Early influences before World War I included contributions to psychological assessment and research on the impact of stress and fatigue. World War I (1917-1918) was instrumental in establishing psychological assessment techniques and gained psychology more respect as governments and businesses used psychologists to improve efficiency. Between World Wars I and II (1919-1939), psychology became more recognised as an applied field with specialised practice areas. The period during World War II saw psychologists involved in personnel selection and training for the military. Contemporary times (1950s-1970s) saw the implementation of civil rights laws impacting employment practices and the growth of organisational psychology. From the 1980s to modern times, there was a shift towards organisational psychology and employee well-being, with ongoing emphasis on research in psychological assessment and career psychology. In South Africa, the development of industrial psychology has its own trajectory. Important contributions were made after World War II and during the 1960s, with industrial psychology being offered at academic levels. Key contributing institutions and people include the National Institute for Personnel Research (NIPR) and the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC), with Simon Biesheuvel considered the father of industrial psychology in South Africa. Important controlling bodies like the NIPR and HSRC played a role in research and the development of psychological assessment. The current state of affairs in South African psychology reflects a move towards greater integration and unified thinking and practice, despite historical issues related to political ideologies. Seventhly, the chapter comments on the identity of I-0 psychology in general and in South Africa. The terminology used to refer to the field varies internationally, including 'industrial psychology', 'organisational psychology', 'work psychology', and 'occupational psychology'. In South Africa and the US, 'industrial psychology' and 'I-0 psychology' are commonly used and often imply the same thing. The term 'organisational psychology' was added later to reflect a broader scope. In South Africa, the Professional Board for Psychology (PBP) still uses 'industrial psychologist' as a professional registration category. I-0 psychology is an applied area of psychology that uses in-depth psychological knowledge, research, and techniques in the work context. It focuses on individuals and groups within an organisational context. It is considered a scientific discipline because it has foundational knowledge, which is supported by research and used to develop practical applications. In South Africa, I-0 psychology is also becoming a 'reflective science', continuously scrutinising its practices to ensure fairness and relevance. Finally, the chapter explains issues related to the training, registration, and practice of psychologists in South Africa. The training and practice are governed by bodies such as the Department of Higher Education, university psychology departments, and the PBP, which is part of the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA). The HPCSA controls all health-related professions and applies relevant laws. The PBP specifically governs psychological training, practice, and conduct. The practice framework includes registration categories such as psychologist, psychometrist, counsellor, intern psychologist, and student psychologist. To register as a professional psychologist, individuals typically need a master's degree, a one-year internship, and must pass the board's entrance examination. Registration is possible in practice areas like industrial, clinical, counselling, educational, and research psychology. In South Africa, practitioners who are not registered psychologists may not perform psychological acts, including psychological assessment, counselling, and therapy. Professional associations like the Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology in South Africa (SIOPSA) and the Psychological Society of South Africa (PsySSA) also play a role in promoting best practices and ethical conduct. Chapter 2 Chapter 2, titled "Frameworks for thinking and practice in 1-0 psychology", introduces us to various psychological schools of thought, or as the text calls them, "paradigms". These act as different ways of thinking or frameworks that help us understand human behaviour, particularly in the context of industrial and organisational (I-O) psychology. The chapter highlights that 1-0 psychology, being an applied field, shares a common history and nature with general psychology and utilises these various psychological paradigms. Let's explore some of these key schools of thought in more detail:  Structuralism and Functionalism: o Structuralism, which emerged with Wilhelm Wundt, focused on studying the human mind, or consciousness, by breaking it down into its basic structural elements like sensations, images, and emotions. They used a method called analytical introspection, where people self-observed their immediate experiences to identify these basic elements evoked by different stimuli. While introspection is still used in contemporary psychology through self-reports and reflection, it's recognised as limited and subjective. o Functionalism, prominent in the US with William James, shifted the focus from the structure of consciousness to its purpose and function in helping individuals adapt to their environment. It was more concerned with functional behaviour and learning. Although not a recognised school of thought today, its lasting contribution is seen in applied psychology, such as in psychological assessment for employee selection.  Behaviourism: o This approach, spearheaded by John B. Watson, reacted against the subjectivity of studying consciousness. Behaviourism focuses solely on overt and observable behaviour that can be objectively measured through observation and experiments. This perspective, often called the 'first force' in psychology, emphasises that learning occurs through interactions with the environment.  o If we consider Tebogo's case from a behaviourist perspective, we might look at her past experiences and the reinforcements or lack thereof in her environment. Perhaps previous negative experiences at work led to learned negative behaviours and attitudes. A behaviourist approach would focus on changing her current environment and providing positive reinforcements to shape more desirable behaviours.  Gestalt Psychology: o Originating in Germany, Gestalt psychology emphasises that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The focus is on a person's total experience and how the mind organises and integrates separate stimuli into meaningful wholes or patterns. Principles like perceptual organisation (e.g., how we distinguish figure from ground) illustrate this. o Applying Gestalt principles to Tebogo, we might consider the overall pattern of her experiences at work. Her negative attitude and poor performance might be seen as a reflection of a dysfunctional "whole" in her work environment or her perception of it. The focus would be on understanding the interconnectedness of various factors contributing to her current state.  The Psychoanalytic School: o This perspective, often called 'depth psychology' and considered the 'second force' in psychology, was founded by Sigmund Freud. It views the primary subject matter of psychology as the unconscious mind and the influence of early childhood experiences on personality and behaviour. Key concepts include different levels of consciousness (conscious, pre-conscious, unconscious) and the structures of personality (id, ego, superego). Defence mechanisms are also a crucial aspect, representing unconscious strategies to protect oneself from anxiety. o From a psychoanalytic viewpoint, Tebogo's behaviour might stem from unresolved unconscious conflicts or early childhood experiences that are now manifesting in her work life. Her feelings of being an outsider or her difficulties with authority figures could be linked to past relationships and unresolved  issues. Understanding these deeper, unconscious motivations would be key in this perspective.  Humanism (Phenomenology): o This 'third force' in psychology, with key figures like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, emphasises the uniqueness of the individual, personal growth, free will, and the inherent potential for self-actualisation. It focuses on subjective experience and the individual's striving for meaning and self-direction. Concepts like self, positive regard, empathy, transparency, and acceptance are central. o A humanistic approach to Tebogo would focus on her subjective experiences, her feelings of alienation, and her potential for growth. The emphasis would be on creating a supportive environment where she feels valued and empowered to take responsibility for her actions and move towards self-actualisation. Her negative attitudes might be seen as a result of her needs for belonging and self- esteem not being met.  The trait psychological (psychometric) approach: This focuses on identifying and measuring stable and enduring personality traits to understand individual differences in behaviour. The five-factor model (FFM) is a prominent framework in this area, describing personality across five broad dimensions.  Biological and evolutionary perspectives: These perspectives examine the biological bases of behaviour, including genetics, the nervous system, and evolutionary influences. They consider how our biological makeup can predispose us to certain behaviours.  African and Asian perspectives: These highlight the importance of cultural context in understanding personality and behaviour. They often emphasise collectivism, holism, interconnectedness, and spiritual values, contrasting with the more individualistic and autonomous focus of many Western perspectives.   Positive psychology: This relatively newer approach shifts the focus to well-being, positive emotions, strengths, and optimal human functioning, rather than solely on illness and problems.  Contextual approaches, like systems theory, emphasise understanding behaviour by considering the various interacting environments and influencing factors. Systems theory views entities like organisations as interconnected systems where different parts influence each other. The chapter also introduces the concept of enduring themes in psychology, which are unifying principles that reappear across different paradigms. Finally, it touches on how the meanings of psychological concepts can evolve and be applied in wider contexts. Ultimately, Chapter 2 provides a foundational understanding of the diverse "psychological 'thinking caps'" that we can use to analyse and influence employee and organisational behaviour in I-O psychology. These different perspectives offer valuable insights into the complexities of human behaviour in the workplace. Chapter 4 Based on the source material, Chapter 4, "Human and career development across the lifespan", aims to provide an introduction to the concepts, theories, principles, and issues regarding general human development and career development. Human development is presented as a continuous process throughout the lifespan, involving progressive development through identifiable stages in physical, cognitive, moral, and psychosocial aspects. Here is a more in-depth summary of the key concepts and areas likely covered in Chapter 4: 1. Defining Human and Career Development and Related Concepts While the source doesn't provide singular formal definitions within the excerpts, it indicates that the chapter will define various concepts related to human and career development. Some of these related concepts explicitly mentioned are:  Critical periods: These are specific stages where the presence or absence of particular factors, especially environmental ones, can have positive or negative effects. The chapter specifically highlights the first five years of development as a critical period.  Optimal periods: Similar to critical periods, these are likely stages where certain types of learning or development are most effective.  Career anchors: This is a concept discussed within the section on career development and management issues. The source does not define it further in these excerpts.  Developmental tasks: These are abilities an individual is expected to execute at certain ages and stages.  Self-concept: According to Super, career development, adjustment, and maturity are linked to the expression of an individual's self-concept.  Skills and attitudes: Havighurst emphasises the development of these in career development.  Ego-identity states: Marcia's four types of ego-identity states that adolescents may experience in career-choice issues are likely discussed. 2. Explaining the Nature and Characteristics of Human Development The learning outcomes state that this chapter will explain the nature and characteristics of human development. Although these characteristics are not explicitly listed in the provided excerpts, based on general knowledge of developmental psychology (which this chapter introduces), these likely include:  Continuity: Development is an ongoing process throughout the lifespan.  Orderliness: Development follows a relatively predictable sequence of changes.  Progressiveness: Development generally moves towards greater complexity and maturity.  Involving growth, maturation (developments related to genetic/biological influences), and potentially decline in later life.  Becoming more complex, organised, integrated, and holistic from being simplistic, concrete, and self-centred. 3. Explaining the Determinants and Various Domains of Human Development The chapter aims to explain the factors that influence development (determinants) and the different aspects of development (domains). While the specific determinants and domains are not detailed in these excerpts, common determinants include:  Heredity (Nature): Genetic factors influencing development.  Environment (Nurture): External factors, experiences, and social contexts. The various domains of human development typically include:  Physical Development: Changes in the body and its systems.  Cognitive Development: Changes in thinking, reasoning, memory, and language.  Social Development: Changes in relationships and social interactions.  Emotional Development: Changes in understanding and expressing emotions.  Moral Development: Development of ethical principles and values.  Psychosocial Development: Development of identity and social roles. 4. Indicating How Critical and Optimal Periods May Influence Later Development and Behaviour As mentioned earlier, the chapter states that certain critical and optimal periods may have important influences, especially with regard to later development and adult behaviour.  A critical period, exemplified by the first five years of development, is a stage where the presence or absence of particular factors, especially environmental ones, can have positive or negative effects. This suggests that experiences during these sensitive times can have lasting impacts on an individual's development and subsequent behaviour.  The concept of readiness is related to this, referring to the point at which a person is sufficiently mature to do certain things or benefit from learning. 5. Some Career Development and Management Issues (Section 4.7) This section of the chapter focuses on specific challenges and considerations in career development:  Career anchors: These are discussed but not defined in the provided excerpts.  Gender-related career development issues: The chapter will address how gender can influence career paths and experiences.  Cross-cultural-related career development issues: This section will likely explore how cultural differences impact career development and management. 6. Stages of Cognitive Development According to Piaget (Table 4.1) Chapter 4 includes Table 4.1 which outlines the Stages of cognitive development according to Piaget. Piaget's theory posits that cognition in all children develops in predictable, progressive phases through maturation and learning experiences. These phases involve the formation of categories of information and abstract patterns. While Table 4.1 is not visible in the excerpts, Piaget's stages are generally understood to be:  Sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years): Infants learn through senses and actions.   Preoperational stage (about 2 to 7 years): Children begin to use language and symbols but lack logical reasoning.  Concrete operational stage (about 7 to 11 years): Children develop logical thinking about concrete events.  Formal operational stage (from about 11 years onwards): Adolescents develop abstract and hypothetical reasoning. 7. Adult Cognitive Development (Schaie) Related to Piaget's ideas, Schaie proposed that adult thinking develops in different progressive stages:  Acquisition stage (childhood and adolescence): Individuals acquire increasingly complex ways of thinking, with the formal-operational stage being the highest level.  Achieving stage (young adulthood): Individuals apply their cognitive abilities to pursue career and family goals.  Executive stage (middle adulthood): Some individuals take on broader responsibilities, including societal concerns.  Reorganisational stage (late adulthood): Individuals adjust their focus to activities that hold personal meaning.  Reintegrative stage (later adulthood): Individuals become more selective about the tasks they engage in, focusing on those most meaningful to them.  Legacy-leaving stage (old age): Individuals focus on leaving a legacy for future generations. 8. Career Development Theories (Super and Havighurst) The chapter also touches upon various theories of career development:  Super believed that career development, adjustment, and maturity are related to the expression of self-concept. His theory also includes career stages and necessary developmental tasks.   Havighurst emphasised the development of skills and attitudes as crucial in career development. His views on career stages and developmental tasks are integrated with Super's in Table 4.2 (not shown in the excerpts). 9. Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development Although not detailed in the immediate excerpts about Chapter 4, Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is mentioned elsewhere in the source. This theory proposes that individuals go through eight stages across the lifespan, each characterised by a specific psychosocial crisis that needs to be resolved for healthy development. These stages are likely relevant to the broader discussion of human development in Chapter 4. The stages mentioned in relation to lifespan development are:  Trust versus mistrust (first year of life — sensory, oral).  Autonomy versus shame and doubt (two to three years — muscular, anal).  Initiative versus guilt (four to five years — locomotor, genital).  Industry versus inferiority (6—11 years through to puberty — latency).  Identity versus role diffusion (12—18 years). In summary, Chapter 4 provides a foundational understanding of how individuals develop physically, cognitively, socially, emotionally, morally, and psychosocially throughout their lives, and how these developmental processes intersect with career development and related challenges. It covers key theories, concepts, and influential periods across the lifespan.