CHAPTER-ONE.docx

CHAPTER ONE *Introduction* Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. Psychology is an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of...

CHAPTER ONE *Introduction* Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. Psychology is an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including relating to individuals\' daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. It is largely concerned with humans, although the behavior and mental processes of animals can also be part of psychology research, either as a subject in its own right **(**e.g. animal cognition and ethology**)**, or somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison **(**including [comparative psychology](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/comparative_psychology)**)**. **Psychology and other sciences.** Psychology differs from the other social sciences --- anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology --- in that psychology seeks to explain the mental processes and behavior of *individuals*. Whereas biology and neuroscience study the biological or neural processes and how they relate to the mental effects they subjectively produce, psychology is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behavior on a systemic level. The subfield of neuropsychology studies the actual neural processes while biological psychology studies the biological bases of behavior and mental states. **EARLY USAGE OF THE WORD 'PSYCHOLOGY'** The first use of the term \"psychology\" is often attributed to the German scholastic philosopher Rudolf Goeckel (Latinized Rudolph Goclenius), published in 1590. More than six decades earlier, however, the Croatian humanist Marko Marulić used the term in the title of a work which was subsequently lost. This, of course, may not have been the very first usage, but it is the earliest documented use at present. The term did not fall into popular usage until the German idealist philosopher, Christian Wolff (1679-1754) used it in his Psychologia empirica and Psychologia rationalis (1732-1734). This distinction between empirical and rational psychology was picked up in Diderot\'s Encyclopedie and was popularized in France by Maine de Biran. The root of the word psychology (psyche) is very roughly equivalent to \"soul\" (Gr. *psukhe*) in Greek, and (logy) equivalent to \"study" (Gr. *logos*). Psychology came to be considered a study of the soul (in a religious sense of this term) much later, in Christian times. Psychology as a medical discipline can be seen in Thomas Willis\' reference to psychology (the \"Doctrine of the Soul\") in terms of brain function, as part of his 1672 anatomical treatise \"De Anima Brutorum\" (\"Two Discourses on the Souls of Brutes\"). Until about the end of the 19th century, psychology was regarded as a branch of philosophy. **HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY** Psychology as a discipline did not emerge until the late 19th century. But its roots extend to the ancient past. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece where philosophers and religious scholars have wondered about the nature of the mind. It also has its roots in the scientific development of the 19th century which contributed to the development of psychology as an independent scientific discipline. **I. Pre-Scientific Era** A. Philosophical Roots Like most sciences, psychology has its roots in philosophy. **Buddha**, the spiritual leader whose teachings founded Buddhism, questioned how our sensations and preconceptions combine to form ideas. ***Confucius***, the Chinese philosopher,*** ***stressed the power of ideas and an educated mind. ***Socrates ***and ***Plato*** (387 BC) of Ancient Greece concluded that the mind  is separable from the body and continues after the body dies. In so much to say that knowledge is innate. ***Aristotle*** (334 BC) refuted, however, that knowledge is not pre-existing but grows from experience. Derived principles of knowledge all come from careful observation. Furthermore, Aristotle is said to be the 'Father of Psychology' for writing what is probably the first systematic treatise on Psychology (De Anima). *[**Rene Decartes**](http://cognitiveconsonance.wordpress.com/2012/08/02/profile-of-a-psychologist-rene-descartes/), *the French philosopher and mathematician, is considered to be the founder of modern science. Descartes' philosophy is closely associated with Dualism (1641) which distinguishes the mind (composed of nonphysical substance) from the brain which is physical in nature and is the seat of intelligence. ***John Locke***, British political philosopher, interested in human abilities, in *An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689)*, argued that the mind at birth is a ***tabula rasa*** or "blank slate" on which experience writes. Bacon and Locke (1690) developed ***modern empiricism ***or the view that knowledge originates in experience and that is why science should rely on observation and experimentation. B. Scientific Roots **1859**. Charles Darwin published the "On the Origin of Species", detailing his view of evolution. In his theory, Darwin proposed that through natural selection physical characteristics that promote the survival of the individual are more likely to be passed on to offspring, because individuals with these characteristics are more likely to live long enough to reproduce. This brought attention to the role of heredity on behavior. **1869**. Sir Francis Galton, Influenced by Charles Darwin's 'Origin of the Species,' publishes 'Hereditary Genius,' and argues that intellectual abilities are biological in nature. Furthermore, Galton, was concerned with the way in which biology causes one person's abilities, character and behavior to differ from those of other people. **II. Scientific Era (Psychology as an Independent Science)** The late 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year **1879** is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study, because in that year German scientist [**Wilhelm Wundt**](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt) founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt combined philosophical [**introspection**](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/introspection) with techniques and laboratory apparatuses brought over from his physiological studies with [Helmholtz](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz), as well as many of his own design. This experimental introspection was in contrast to what had been called psychology until then, a branch of philosophy where people introspected themselves. **1890.** The American philosopher William James published his seminal book, *Principles of Psychology*, laying the foundations for many of the questions that psychologists would focus on for years to come. **1900.** The Austrian physician Sigmund Freud publishes his "Interpretation of Dreams", his major theoretical work on psychoanalysis. Freud, who was trained as a neurologist and had no formal training in experimental psychology, had developed a method of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis. Freud\'s understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods and introspection, and was focused in particular on resolving mental distress and psychopathology. **1905. A Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov** (1849-1936), begins publishing researches on conditioning in animals which brought the concept of **conditioned reflex**. This gave psychologists a new tool with which to explore the development of behavior. **1912**. Max Wertheimer published research on the perception of movement, marking the beginnings of Gestalt Psychology. **20th century.** Behaviorism gained popularity as a guiding psychological theory. Championed by psychologists such as John B. Watson and Edward Thorndike (and later, B.F. Skinner), behaviorism was grounded in studies of animal behavior. Behaviorists argued that psychology should be a science of behavior, not the mind, and rejected the idea that internal mental states such as beliefs, desires, or goals could be studied scientifically. In his paper \"Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It\" (1913), Watson argued that psychology \"is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science,\" that \"introspection forms no essential part of its methods\", and that \"the behaviorist recognizes no dividing line between man and brute.\" **III. Modern Era** **1950s.** Humanistic psychology emerged in the 1950s and has continued as a reaction to positivist and scientific approaches to the mind. It stresses a phenomenological view of human experience and seeks to understand human beings and their behavior by conducting qualitative research. The humanistic approach has its roots in existentialist and phenomenological philosophy and many humanist psychologists completely reject a scientific approach, arguing that trying to turn human experience into measurements strips it of all meaning and relevance to lived existence.\ Some of the founding theorists behind this school of thought were Abraham Maslow who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, Carl Rogers who created and developed client-centered therapy, and Fritz Perls who helped create and develop Gestalt therapy. **1959.** Noam Chomsky\'s review of Skinner\'s book Verbal Behavior (that aimed to explain language acquisition in a behaviorist framework) is considered one of the major factors in the ending of behaviorism\'s reign. **1991.** Martin Seligman publishes Learned Optimism which foreshadows the "positive psychology movement." **1993**. In his Frames of Mind, Howard Gardner outlines his multiple theory of intelligences. **2002.** Psychologist Daniel Kahneman, receives a Nobel Prize for his research on decision making. **Psychology in the Philippines**  **American Roots -- 1900s** The Americans brought psychology to Manila in the early 1900's when psychology was taught as a subject separate from philosophy. In 1926 the Department of Psychology was formed at the School of Education in the University of the Philippines. **Spanish Influence - 1938** Fr. Angel de Blas, a Spanish Dominican priest and philosopher founded the experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Santo Tomas. **German Roots - 1954** **The Belgian Connection in the Cordilleras - 1967** Fr. Evarist Verlinden, a Belgian missionary priest headed the St. Louis University (Baguio) when it offered psychology as undergraduate degree **SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT & MODERN PERSPECTIVES** When psychology was first established as a science separate from biology and philosophy, the debate over how to describe and explain the human mind and behavior began. The different schools of psychology represent the major theories within psychology. Structuralism. Wilhelm Wundt founded this first school of psychology, which focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components, primarily sensation and perception. Structuralists used techniques such as introspection to analyze the inner processes of the human mind. Edward Titchener expanded Wundt's ideas. Functionalism. Instead of focusing on the structure of consciousness, William James was interested in the study of the adaptive functions of the human mind. Behaviorism. This was based upon the work of thinkers such as: John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner. Behaviorism suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than by internal forces. Behaviorism is focused on observable behavior. Psychoanalysis. is a school of psychology founded by Sigmund Freud. This school of thought emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior, early life experiences and development through stages. Humanistic psychology developed as a response to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Humanistic psychology instead focused on individual free will, personal growth and the concept of self-actualization. Major humanist thinkers include: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Gestalt psychology is a school of psychology based upon the idea that we experience things as unified wholes. This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Instead of breaking down thoughts and behavior to their smallest elements, the gestalt psychologists believed that you must look at the whole of experience. Max Wertheimer - proponent **MODERN PERSPECTIVES** Neuroscience - focuses on how the body and brain create emotions, memories, and sensory experiences Evolutionary - focuses on the biological bases for universal mental characteristics, such as why we lie, how attractiveness influences mate selection, the universality of fear, etc. Psychodynamic - how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts Behavioral - focuses on how we learn observable responses Cognitive - focuses on how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information Socio-cultural - focuses on how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures Humanistic psychology emphasizes the importances of individual perceptions and self-perceptions and strives to help each individual reach his or her fullest potential. **BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY/FIELD OF SPECIALIZATION** What do these other branches of psychology focus on? *animal, community, clinical, child, differential, educational, social, and personality psychology* +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Who is a | | | | Psychologist? | | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | A psychologist\... | Where? | \...is trained in | | | | psychology, | | \...works in the | - university/colleg | | | field of psychology, | e | \...and has an | | | | advanced degree | | research | - self-employed in | (masters or doctorate | | | private | degree) | | treatment | institutions | | | | | | | counseling | - government, | | | | including schools | | | consulting | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ A psychologist is one who questions and examines behavior and internal mental states. **Future of Psychology** There are a number of trends that current psychologists have identified. - increasing specialization (the APA has 53 divisions) - new perspectives and new approaches within the old perspectives - integration of the poles (nature and nurture; behavior and mental states) - increasing acceptance of and access to treatment for mental illness - increasing acknowledgement of diversity - application of psychology to many areas of life