Chapter 8 Psyc PDF

What does the term "cognition" refer to?
a. focusing awareness of a narrow range of stimuli or events
b. mental processes involved in acquiring and using knowledge
c. widely shared beliefs that are transmitted socially across generations
d. use of language in a social context Answer: b Why was the s...

What does the term "cognition" refer to?
a. focusing awareness of a narrow range of stimuli or events
b. mental processes involved in acquiring and using knowledge
c. widely shared beliefs that are transmitted socially across generations
d. use of language in a social context Answer: b Why was the study of cognition discouraged during the first half of the 20th century?
a. Cognition was not considered to be a psychological function.
b. Earlier studies using the method of introspection had yielded unreliable results.
c. Psychodynamic theories were too dominant in the field.
d. Language acquisition was viewed as an innate process that could not be studied empirically. Answer: b Which of the following is NOT a cognitive activity?
a. solving a problem
b. remembering something
c. blinking at something
d. making a decision Answer: c Which of the following led to the "cognitive revolution" in the 1950s?
a. renewed interest in the method of introspection
b. improved technology for addressing the questions associated with cognition
c. dissatisfaction with the limitations of behaviourism
d. rejection of psychoanalytic methods of analysis Answer: d What are the adjectives that describe the four essential characteristics of language?
a. symbolic, generative, phonemic, and structured
b. syntactic, symbolic, generative, and semantic
c. semantic, symbolic, structured, and generative
d. generative, rule-governed, phonemic, and syntactic Answer: c If you draw an arrow in order to indicate where someone should go, what function of language does the arrow
serve?
a. generative
b. structural
c. symbolic
d. phonemic Answer: c There are different sounds across languages that all represent the same thing. Which quality of language does this
reflect?
a. semantic
b. generative
c. cross-cultural
d. structural Answer: a What do we mean when we say that language is generative?
a. The symbols used in the language are arbitrary.
b. Language is both written and oral.
c. A limited number of symbols can be combined to produce an infinite variety of messages.
d. Sentences must be structured in a limited number of ways. Answer: c Language allows a person to express new ideas. Which quality of language does this reflect?
a. the symbolic dimension of language
b. the constructive function of language
c. the generative quality of language
d. the invention dimension of language Answer: c Language has rules that govern the arrangement of words into phrases and sentences. What quality of language
does this reflect?
a. phonemic
b. continuity
c. structured
d. generative Answer: c Imagine that a race of extraterrestrials came to earth. These extraterrestrials quickly learned to use Earth words
to convey meaningful messages, but they never created new combinations of words or learned how to use rules
to create meaningful sentences. Which of the following would be true of their communications?
a. They would have all the requirements for language.
b. They would not be generative or structured, but would be symbolic and semantic.
c. They would lack all the essential elements of language.
d. They would not be symbolic or semantic, but would be generative and structured. Answer: b Imagine that a race of extraterrestrials came to earth. These extraterrestrials quickly learned to use Earth words
to convey meaningful messages, and they were able to communicate effectively about unique aspects of their
planet in meaningful sentences. Which of the following would be true of their communications?
a. They would not be generative or structured, but would be symbolic and semantic.
b. They would have all the essential requirements for language.
c. They would not be semantic or generative, but would be structured and symbolic.
d. They would not be symbolic or semantic, but would be generative and structured. Answer: b How many phonemes does the English language use?
a. approximately 450,000 phonemes, one for each word
b. 26 phonemes, one for each letter of the alphabet
c. about 40 phonemes, corresponding to the letters of the alphabet plus several variations
d. all of the 100 or so phonemes that humans are capable of producing Answer: c Phonemes are the smallest units of which component of language?
a. meaning
b. sound
c. dialect
d. syntax Answer: b Which of the following statements is LEAST accurate?
a. A letter of the alphabet is represented by more than one phoneme if it has more than one pronunciation.
b. All languages use all of the phonemes of which humans are capable.
c. Humans are capable of producing about 100 phonemes.
d. Phonemes are combined into morphemes. Answer: b Threeyearold Isaiah used to say "mick" when he wanted a drink of milk. Now he is able to say "milk" quite
clearly. What language component has Isaiah improved in this instance?
a. morphemes
b. phonemes
c. syntax
d. linguistic heuristics Answer: b Last Halloween, 4yearold Jillian called the decorations at her house "pukkins." This year she is able to say
"pumpkins" when she describes them. What language component has Jillian improved in this instance?
a. morphemes
b. syntax
c. phonemes
d. linguistic heuristics Answer: c Morphemes are the smallest units of which component of language?
a. syntax
b. sound
c. dialect
d. meaning Answer: d What is the smallest unit of meaning in a language?
a. phrase
b. morpheme
c. phoneme
d. word Answer: b What occurs when the word "oat" is changed to the word "boat"?
a. The number of phonemes increase, but the number of morphemes stays the same.
b. The number of phonemes and morphemes both increase.
c. The number of phonemes stay the same, but the number of morphemes increase.
d. The number of phonemes decrease, but the number of morphemes increase. Answer: a What occurs when the word "able" is changed to the word "table"?
a. The number of phonemes and morphemes both increase.
b. The number of phonemes decrease, but the number of morphemes increase.
c. The number of phonemes stay the same, but the number of morphemes increase.
d. The number of phonemes increase, but the number of morphemes stay the same. Answer: d What occurs when the word "jar" is changed to the word "jars"?
a. The numbers of phonemes and morphemes both increase.
b. The number of phonemes decreases, but the number of morphemes increases.
c. The number of phonemes increases, but the number of morphemes stays the same.
d. The number of phonemes stays the same, but the number of morphemes increases. Answer: a How many morphemes are in the word "unchangeable"?
a. one morpheme, for the entire word
b. four morphemes, one for each syllable
c. nine morphemes, one for each letter of the alphabet used
d. three morphemes, one for each unit of meaning Answer: d Which of the following words has the same number of morphemes as the word "unbeliever"?
a. triangle
b. silly
c. privilege
d. restated Answer: d What is the function of the component of language called semantics?
a. understanding the meaning of words and word combinations
b. creating novel messages from a finite number of symbols
c. specifying rules for how words can be arranged into sentences
d. correctly pronouncing the prefixes, suffixes, and root words of a language Answer: a What is the denotation of a word?
a. a complex interaction between the word's phonology and syntax
b. its dictionary definition
c. its emotional overtones and secondary implications
d. the separate sounds that make up the word Answer: b What is the connotation of a word?
a. the separate sounds that make up the word
b. its emotional overtones and secondary implications
c. its dictionary definition
d. a complex interaction between the word's phonology and syntax Answer: b Which of the following would change depending on whether you used a word in a literal sentence or a sarcastic
sentence?
a. denotation
b. phonemes
c. connotation
d. morphemes Answer: c Which component of language allows you to recognize that "give" and "take" have opposite meanings?
a. generativity
b. semantics
c. syntax
d. phonology Answer: b A declarative sentence must have both a noun phrase and a verb phrase. Which type of rule is this?
a. transformational rule
b. rule of syntax
c. rule of denotation
d. semantic rule Answer: b For which of the following do we use syntax?
a. combining morphemes into words
b. combining phonemes to form morphemes
c. arranging words into phrases and sentences
d. using words symbolically Answer: c Which of the following statements is most accurate?
a. Rules of syntax underlie all language use.
b. Syntax is the first component of language to be mastered by children.
c. If speakers can use a rule of syntax, they will also be able to verbalize it.
d. The process by which we learn the rules of syntax is well understood by psycholinguists. Answer: a Which type of rule is violated in the following "sentence": "The nervous the stared thick at exam student"?
a. syntax
b. psycholinguistics
c. heuristic
d. denotation Answer: a Last year, 5yearold Alonda would say "Him no coming" when explaining to her younger sister that their older
brother would be staying home. Now Alonda will tell her sister "He's not coming." Which aspect of language
does this example illustrate development in?
a. linguistic relativity
b. phonemes
c. morphemes
d. syntax Answer: d What is produced in "babbling"?
a. different cries to signify different kinds of discomfort
b. a wide variety of phonemes and consonant-vowel combinations
c. sound, by placing the tongue near the back of the mouth
d. random combinations of words Answer: b At about what age do babies start babbling?
a. birth
b. 1 month
c. 3 months
d. 6 months Answer: d Which of the following statements is most accurate?
a. Babies initially babble the sounds used in many different languages.
b. Babies babble only sounds that are part of the parents' language.
c. Babbling simply involves imitation of the parents' speech sounds.
d. Babbling emerges only in infants who are not exposed to correct speech. Answer: a Which of the following statements is LEAST accurate?
a. The sounds babbled by babies from different cultures are different right from the start.
b. Infants' first words are similar, even in different languages.
c. Infants' first words are likely to consist of sounds that are easy to produce.
d. Infants' first words resemble the syllables they babble spontaneously. Answer: a What should you expect to find if you were to compare adult speech with the variety of noises made by infants
under six months of age?
a. Adults are capable of producing more phonemes than are infants.
b. Adults and infants both use the same number of phonemes.
c. Infants produce more phonemes than adults do.
d. Infants produce more morphemes than adults do. Answer: c You are at a daycare centre and you hear three 12-month-old babies babbling, each baby from a different
racial/ethnic background (Asian, Hispanic, and Caucasian). What should be true of the babbling of each of these
infants?
a. It will sound very similar, because maturation is the major determinant of language acquisition during the
first year.
b. It will consist mainly of two-word phrases (telegraphic speech).
c. It will consist mainly of vowel sounds, because consonant sounds don't usually emerge until 14 months of
age.
d. It will sound very different, with each child's babbles sounding quite similar to the parents' native language. Answer: d Evidence was presented in the Featured Study about babbling in the manual mode. What did that study suggest
about babbling?
a. It is specifically related to maturation of the vocal tract.
b. It is emitted by deaf infants, but they cannot use it for communication.
c. It is an important component of language development, regardless of the modality.
d. It is an important component of spoken speech, but not signed speech. Answer: c What must be true about babbling if infants who are learning sign language show evidence of manual babbling
(using sign-language-based babbling), but other infants show only vocal babbling?
a. It is related to maturation processes that are unrelated to speech.
b. It is important for development of more than just language and vocal skills.
c. It is related to language acquisition in general, rather than just vocal speech.
d. It is related to motor development in general. Answer: c At about what age are a child's first words generally spoken?
a. 3 to 5 months
b. 6 to 8 months
c. 10 to 13 months
d. 18 to 21 months Answer: c Which of the following situations would lead you to suspect that the child has a language development problem?
a. A 3-year-old child uses grammar correctly around 75 percent to 80 percent of the time.
b. A 5-year-old child can use language much better than a chimpanzee.
c. A 2-year-old child babbles and uses a few words.
d. A 1-year-old child understands a few words and can say a few words. Answer: c Valerie is 18 months old. What should her productive vocabulary consist of?
a. 100 to 200 words
b. fewer than 3 words
c. about 500 words
d. 3 to 50 words Answer: d In general, which of the following is true of toddlers' language abilities?
a. They understand more words than they can say.
b. They can say more words than they understand.
c. They understand and say about the same number of words.
d. They say a lot of words, but we have no idea what they actually understand. Answer: a Jenna is 14 months old and uses only "bottle," "no," "up," "byebye," "mama," and "dada" when she talks.
However, when her father tells Jenna to get her blue bunny from the bedroom and bring it to him, Jenna quickly
runs to get the bunny. What does this example illustrate?
a. Children can overextend their vocabulary, when the situation demands it.
b. Jenna likely has a speech impediment.
c. Infants have difficulty pronouncing phonemes they have never heard.
d. Toddlers' receptive vocabularies are larger than their productive vocabularies. Answer: d What is fast mapping?
a. pacing of activity associated with gene expression
b. relating words to underlying concepts after only one exposure
c. a type of play a child engages in at an early age
d. development of a mental representation of one's environment Answer: b Seamus discovered ice cream, dolphins, and trains for the first time yesterday, and has started using those words
correctly right away. What does this example illustrate?
a. overextension
b. metalinguistic awareness
c. semantic slanting
d. fast mapping Answer: d Which of the following is a case of overextension?
a. A word is incorrectly used to describe the opposite of its true meaning.
b. A child uses a single word to signify an entire phrase or sentence.
c. A word is incorrectly used for a wider set of objects or actions than it applies to.
d. A child's vocabulary has become overly large. Answer: c Kailee has learned the word "kitty," but she uses this word when she is referring to cats, bunnies, squirrels, and
other small furry animals. What does this example illustrate?
a. babbling
b. fast mapping
c. telegraphic speech
d. overextension Answer: d Roberto knows how to say "red," but when his cousin asks him to name the colours of the cars that drive past
their house, he says red for every car, no matter what colour it actually is. What does this example illustrate?
a. telegraphic speech
b. overextension
c. fast mapping
d. babbling Answer: b Overextensions are more common in children's production of words than in their comprehension of words. What
does this imply about the use of overextensions?
a. Toddlers cannot yet combine words into sentences.
b. Children's vocabulary growth occurs at a very rapid pace.
c. Toddlers must rely on a very limited vocabulary to express themselves.
d. Toddlers can't consistently identify objects to which different words apply. Answer: c When a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to, which
type of error is a child making?
a. underextension
b. telegraphic speech
c. overextension
d. undergeneralization Answer: a Which of the following would constitute underextension, if done by a 3-year-old child?
a. using the word "dress" for all items of clothing
b. only using the word "kitty" to refer to her own cat and not others
c. forgetting the word "banana" because it was just learned today
d. leaving words out of sentences, while retaining the basic meaning Answer: b You are listening to 2yearold Annie as she says, "No eat. No like." She is trying to let you know that she is not
going to eat her broccoli because she doesn't like it. What does Annie's communication illustrate?
a. telegraphic speech
b. overregularization
c. semantic slanting
d. underextension Answer: a Twoyearold Owen rushes into the kitchen and tells his mother: "Baby throw. Baby bad." He wants her to
know that his baby brother is bad because he just threw his toys on the floor. What does Owen's
communication illustrate?
a. overregularization
b. underextension
c. semantic slanting
d. telegraphic speech Answer: d What is known about the use of telegraphic speech across cultures?
a. Telegraphic speech is more prevalent in Western cultures than in non-Western cultures.
b. The emergence of telegraphic speech is unique to the English language.
c. The emergence of telegraphic speech is a cross-cultural, universal aspect of language development.
d. Although telegraphic speech occurs in many languages, it is not a universal aspect of language
development. Answer: d By what age do children generally master linguistic concepts like past tense or plural?
a. 3 years
b. 2 years
c. 4 years
d. 5 years Answer: a Dale is in Grade 5 and his sister Alina is in Grade 3. What major difference would you expect in comparing their
vocabularies?
a. Dale's will contain several hundred more words than Alina's.
b. Dale's will contain approximately 20,000 more words than Alina's.
c. Dale's will be only slightly larger than Alina's, but will contain very few errors.
d. Dale's vocabulary will be similar in size, but his syntax will be far superior. Answer: b A child says "wented" as the past tense of the verb "to go." What type of common error is this?
a. metalinguistic transformation
b. semantic slanting
c. motherese
d. overregularization Answer: d Andi says "sawed" instead of "seen" or "saw." What type of common error is this?
a. overextension
b. underextension
c. overregularization
d. underregularization Answer: c Four-year-old Nina says, "I runned all the way home." What does this likely indicate?
a. Nina hears improper verb forms spoken in her home.
b. Nina has forgotten the correct way to form the past tense.
c. Nina is still relying on telegraphic speech to convey meaning.
d. Nina is overregularizing a grammatical rule. Answer: d When a child starts using overregularizations, what do these errors reflect?
a. The child is learning to apply rules to language.
b. The child will soon start using telegraphic speech.
c. The child is fast mapping.
d. The child has slightly delayed development. Answer: a What is metalinguistic awareness?
a. knowledge of which verbs are irregular
b. awareness of the role of positive reinforcement in language acquisition
c. the ability to reflect on the use of language
d. the tendency to recognize one's own grammatical errors Answer: c Sevenyearold Travis heard a joke in school and asks you, "How could you find a lost dog in the woods?"
When you are stumped, he tells you, "You stand near a tree and listen for the bark." What is Travis developing,
based on this play on words?
a. the ability to use linguistic heuristics
b. psycholinguistic skills
c. metalinguistic awareness
d. linguistic relativity Answer: c If Annette is learning two languages, what will be the impact of bilingualism on the development of her
vocabulary?
a. The size of her vocabulary will be smaller in each language, but the total of the two will be similar to the
vocabulary of a monolingual child.
b. The size of her vocabulary will be normal in each language.
c. The size of her vocabulary will be enhanced in each language.
d. The size of her vocabulary, when both languages are added together, will be smaller than that of a
monolingual child. Answer: a Which of the following is true of bilingualism?
a. Bilinguals score higher than monolinguals in metalinguistic awareness.
b. Bilinguals score lower than monolinguals in selective attention and cognitive flexibility.
c. Bilinguals are faster than monolinguals in language-processing speed.
d. Bilingualism has a significant, negative effect on overall language development. Answer: a Dr. Phranal is studying cognitive flexibility and selective attention in bilingual and monolingual adults. What pattern
is Dr. Phranal most likely to see in the test scores of bilingual participants, based on the evidence from previous
research studies?
a. They score higher in cognitive flexibility, but lower in selective attention.
b. They score lower in cognitive flexibility, but higher in selective attention.
c. They score lower in both cognitive flexibility and selective attention.
d. They score higher in both cognitive flexibility and selective attention. Answer: d In some early studies, researchers attempted to teach chimpanzees to speak. What conclusions led to these
studies being discontinued?
a. The reinforcement contingencies used in these studies were highly stressful for chimpanzees.
b. Chimpanzees lack the necessary vocal equipment to produce human speech sounds.
c. Chimpanzees lack the cognitive capacity to understand and produce language.
d. Humans are the only species capable of conscious communication. Answer: b What have we learned from studies in which researchers have attempted to teach chimpanzees and bonobos to
use nonverbal language (i.e., sign language or communication boards)?
a. Some have appeared to learn many words, and have combined words in appropriate ways.
b. They are capable of learning language to a level equivalent to that seen in 10-year-old children.
c. They are not capable of acquiring nonverbal communication.
d. They can use nonverbal methods to communicate with other primates, but not with humans. Answer: a What type of understanding is illustrated by Kanzi (the famous bonobo) and his ability to distinguish between
"Pour the Coke in the lemonade" and "Pour the lemonade in the Coke"?
a. syntax, but not semantics
b. both syntax and semantics
c. neither syntax nor semantics
d. semantics, but not syntax Answer: b Pinker and Bloom suggest that language is an evolutionary adaptation. What does language allow us to do, in
their theory?
a. avoid heuristic fallacies
b. acquire information about the world second-hand
c. engage in more efficient introspection
d. use trial-and-error learning more effectively Answer: b Which of the following is NOT one of the evolutionary advantages that language may have provided?
a. reproductive and mating advantages
b. more rapid classical conditioning
c. more efficient hunting and gathering
d. avoidance of predators and other dangers Answer: b According to Pinker and Bloom, how many generations would it have taken for Neanderthals to become extinct
if the acquisition of language produced a 1 percent difference in mortality rates among overlapping Neanderthal
and human populations?
a. 4,000 generations
b. 30 generations
c. 10 generations
d. 30,000 generations Answer: b According to Pinker and Bloom, if the acquisition of language was a trait variation that produced just 1 percent
more offspring per generation, how long would it take to see an increase in prevalence from 0.1 percent to 99.9
percent?
a. 4,000 generations
b. 3 generations
c. 30 generations
d. 40,000 generations Answer: a Why do children learn a language, according to Skinner?
a. It is a natural consequence of cognitive maturation, as the quality of thought improves with age.
b. They imitate, and then parents provide reinforcement and shaping.
c. It is a natural consequence of a complex and mature brain.
d. They possess an innate language acquisition device. Answer: b Why does a child's pronunciation improve over time, according to learning theory?
a. The brain matures with age.
b. The quality of their problem-solving ability improves.
c. Transformational rules are mastered.
d. Parents insist on better pronunciation before providing reinforcement. Answer: d Dr. Prasad believes that experience with reinforcement determines which specific aspects of language an
individual will eventually master. Which of the following theorists would be most likely to agree with Dr. Prasad?
a. Benjamin Whorf
b. Noam Chomsky
c. B. F. Skinner
d. Herbert Simon Answer: c Which of the following is a criticism of the behaviourist model of language acquisition?
a. Children don't seem to learn transformational rules as Skinner said they should.
b. It is unreasonable to expect children to learn an infinite number of sentences by imitation.
c. Children don't respond to positive reinforcement until they are in preschool, after language is already
established.
d. Its concepts are extremely vague. Answer: b Overregularizations occur as children master language skills. Which theory of language development does this
provide evidence against?
a. behavioural
b. linguistic relativity
c. interactionist
d. nativist Answer: a Mandy seldom corrects her 4yearold's grammatical errors, such as "Her drinked my milk." However, she is
careful to correct factual errors, such as "Tiger ate his milk." If Mandy's child develops normal language skills,
which theory is weakened by this evidence?
a. the nativist view of language development
b. the behavioural view of language development
c. all major theories of language development
d. the transformational theory of language development Answer: b Which of the following is consistent with Noam Chomsky's theories of language?
a. Reinforcement is the main factor in language learning.
b. Biological factors play a relatively minor role in language development.
c. There is an inborn biological propensity that guides language learning.
d. Language is almost wholly a matter of social learning. Answer: c Kamini is playing with her dolls and she points to one of her dolls and says to you, "Her wented out to a party
yesterday night." This is a sentence that she has never heard another person say. Such utterances provide
evidence against which view of language?
a. interactionist
b. cognitive
c. nativist
d. behaviourist Answer: d Which type of theory best accounts for the apparent rapidity and ease of language acquisition in early childhood?
a. behaviourist
b. cognitive
c. nativist
d. social communication Answer: c Dr. Sciorro believes that because the majority of children acquire language without any effort, there must be a
biological mechanism that facilitates language learning. Which of the following theorists most closely mirror Dr.
Sciorro's views of language development?
a. Benjamin Whorf
b. B. F. Skinner
c. Noam Chomsky
d. Herbert Simon Answer: c Which theory of language is associated with the hypothesized "language acquisition device"?
a. generativity
b. learning
c. stage
d. nativist Answer: d Which of the following is NOT an item of evidence Chomsky would use to support the idea of an inborn
language learning mechanism?
a. Children learn language very quickly and effortlessly.
b. The errors in child speech are common and indicate lawfulness.
c. The general rate of language learning is similar for kids from diverse backgrounds.
d. Language learning in young children is different across cultures. Answer: d Some researchers have reported that in the first few months, babies who are born deaf still coo and babble, just
like babies who can hear. Which theory is most supported by this evidence?
a. linguistic relativity
b. behavioural
c. nativist
d. cognitive Answer: c Which of the following is associated with cognitive theories of language acquisition?
a. Children possess a built-in language acquisition device.
b. Language acquisition is tied to children's progress in thinking.
c. Thought starts to occur after the child acquires language.
d. Children learn language through imitation, reinforcement, and shaping. Answer: b Anika has just started to understand the idea that events can happen in the future. Now, when she talks about
things she is going to do tomorrow or next week, she uses the future tense, rather than the present tense. Which
theory would be supported by this development in Anika's language skills?
a. linguistic relativity
b. nativist
c. cognitive
d. behavioural Answer: c Which type of theorist emphasizes the functional value of interactions among people?
a. social communication theorist
b. behaviourist
c. nativist theorist
d. cognitive theorist Answer: a What do social communication theorists emphasize about interpersonal communication?
a. problem-solving aspects
b. functional value
c. linguistic relativity
d. interaction between surface and deep structure Answer: b Which theories of language acquisition focus on the development of neural circuits within the brain in response to
language experience?
a. linguistic relativity
b. social communication
c. behaviourist
d. emergentist Answer: d Which theories of language acquisition emphasize both the importance of children's learning experiences and
their information-processing skills?
a. emergentist
b. nativist
c. social communication
d. behaviourist Answer: a Of the following theories, which one is NOT considered to be an interactionist theory of language acquisition?
a. cognitive
b. emergentist
c. social communication
d. behaviourist Answer: d Dr. DeGroot believes that children gradually acquire language skills as neural circuits that support language
develop within the brain. Dr. DeGroot further believes that these neural circuits will not develop unless children
are exposed to appropriate language learning experiences. Which language theory is most consistent with Dr.
DeGroot's views?
a. emergentist
b. social communication
c. nativist
d. behavioural Answer: a Dr. McGrath believes that both an innate predisposition and a supportive environment contribute to language
development. Which language theory is Dr. McGrath's views are most consistent with?
a. behavioural
b. interactionist
c. nativist
d. Whorfian Answer: b What is predicted by the linguistic relativity hypothesis?
a. People in all cultures think alike, despite their language differences.
b. Language development consistently lags behind cognitive development.
c. Language and thought develop independently.
d. People will have difficulty thinking about things they cannot describe in words. Answer: d When 3-year-old Garret is colouring a picture of a rainbow, he carefully selects different colours for each stripe.
When Garret is asked to name the colours he uses, he confidently answers "blue" each time. Garret can
distinguish between the colours, even though he can't accurately name them yet. What does this suggest?
a. Social communication theory does not accurately reflect the link between language and behaviour.
b. Social communication theory provides an accurate description of the link between language and
behaviour.
c. The linguistic relativity hypothesis does not accurately reflect the link between thought and language.
d. The linguistic relativity hypothesis provides an accurate description of the link between thought and
language. Answer: c Imagine that anthropologists found a culture that had over 80 different words for rice. What would that discovery
suggest if researchers also found that the people in this culture thought about rice in different and more elaborate
ways than people who have only one word for rice?
a. It would provide evidence that social communication theory is incorrect.
b. It would support social communication theory.
c. It would provide evidence that the linguistic relativity hypothesis is incorrect.
d. It would support the linguistic relativity hypothesis. Answer: d Greeno's basic types of problems were described in your text. Which one requires the problem solver to
discover the relations among the parts of the problem?
a. inducing structure
b. transformation
c. recategorization
d. arrangement Answer: a Greeno's basic categories of problems were described in your text. Which category are seriescompletion
problems examples of?
a. transformation
b. inducing structure
c. arrangement
d. recategorization Answer: b Here is an example of a question: Glove is to hand as sock is to _____. What type of question is this?
a. problem of arrangement
b. ill-defined problem
c. problem of transformation
d. problem of inducing structure Answer: d Here is an example of a question: Apple is to fruit as hamburger is to _____. What type of question is this?
a. arrangement problem
b. series-completion problem
c. analogy problem
d. representativeness heuristic Answer: c What type of problem are you solving if you reorganize the letters "OSHOT" to form an English word?
a. lexical analysis
b. inducing structure
c. arrangement
d. transformation Answer: c What is the term for the sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based primarily on
trial and error?
a. insight
b. rearrangement
c. functional fixedness
d. transformation Answer: a Marc loves to solve anagrams, and spends a great deal of time working through books of anagrams. Which
problem-solving strategy does it appear that Marc enjoys?
a. analogical reasoning
b. arrangement
c. transformation
d. inducing structure Answer: b Marie received a puzzle as a present for her birthday. The puzzle has three pegs, and to solve the puzzle a
person is required to move nine disks from the centre peg to one of the outside pegs. However, only one disk
can be moved at a time, and a larger disk can never be placed on top of a smaller disk. What type of problem is
this?
a. problem of arrangement
b. problem of transformation
c. problem of inducing structure
d. ill-defined problem Answer: b Which of the following is true when solving problems containing numerical information?
a. Insight will typically produce the fastest, most accurate solution to the problem.
b. It is a good idea to start by trying to figure out how to use the numerical information.
c. It is safe to assume that all of the information will be needed to solve the problem.
d. You should start by figuring out which information is relevant to the problem. Answer: d What is functional fixedness?
a. the inability to discover the relations among the parts of a problem
b. the sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based primarily on trial and error
c. the inability to carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal
d. the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use Answer: d What does functional fixedness refer to?
a. not seeing a new function for a familiar object
b. arriving at a particularly insightful solution to a problem
c. continued use of problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past
d. focusing on information that is irrelevant to the solution of the problem Answer: a You have a pair of pliers and a bag of nuts in the shell. You are lamenting the fact that you can't shell the nuts
because you do not have a nutcracker. Which of the following problems is demonstrated by your inability to
perceive the pliers as a makeshift nutcracker?
a. mental set
b. insight insufficiency
c. functional fixedness
d. heuristic reasoning Answer: c Claudia wants to send a fragile vase to her parents for their anniversary, but she can't find any appropriate
packing material in her house. She decides to pop some popcorn and use that to pack around the vase. What
has Claudia done in this case?
a. overcome functional fixedness in solving her problem
b. effectively utilized the availability heuristic in solving her problem
c. utilized an elimination-by-aspects strategy to solve her problem
d. demonstrated functional fixedness in solving her problem Answer: a When Quentin sprained his ankle in a backyard softball game, his girlfriend grabbed a bag of frozen corn from
the freezer to wrap around his ankle until they got him to the local clinic. What did Quentin's girlfriend do in this
case?
a. She effectively utilized the availability heuristic.
b. She was able to overcome functional fixedness.
c. She demonstrated a mental set in treating Quentin's sprained ankle.
d. She successfully utilized an elimination-by-aspects strategy. Answer: b Which of the following statements concerning age and functional fixedness is most accurate?
a. All age groups are likely to show evidence of functional fixedness, especially when solving problems using
unfamiliar objects.
b. Compared to all other age groups, adolescents are most likely to show evidence of functional fixedness.
c. Compared to young children, older children and adults are less likely to show evidence of functional
fixedness.
d. Compared to older children and adults, young children are less likely to show evidence of functional
fixedness. Answer: d Kareem is working on a practical problem with his 16-year-old son, Josh, and his 8-year-old daughter, Lisa.
They don't have the right tools for the job, and they need to come up with a creative solution that uses the items
they have available. Based on research findings into the prevalence of functional fixedness, what should you predict?
a. Lisa is most likely to come up with a solution because, in general, young children are less vulnerable to
functional fixedness.
b. Either Kareem or Josh is most likely to come up with a solution because, in general, males are less
vulnerable to functional fixedness.
c. Josh is most likely to come up with a solution because, in general, older children and adolescents are less
vulnerable to functional fixedness.
d. Kareem is most likely to come up with a solution because, in general, adults are less vulnerable to
functional fixedness. Answer: a What are you demonstrating if you tend to persist in using the same problem-solving strategy time after time?
a. delusion
b. mental set
c. illusion
d. generic insight Answer: b Eva just upgraded her software package. However, even though the updated version contains a number of more
efficient methods for working with files, Eva continues to work with files the way she did before the upgrade.
What is Eva showing evidence of in this case?
a. belief perseverance
b. priming
c. the availability heuristic
d. mental set Answer: d Riley's algebra teacher is amazed at the creativity Riley shows in solving homework problems. He seldom uses
the same method on two consecutive problems, even when the problems are very similar in content and
structure. Although Riley makes lots of mistakes in algebra, what is he unlikely to experience?
a. mental set in his problem solving
b. functional fixedness in his problem solving
c. overregularization in his problem solving
d. noncompensatory problem solving Answer: a You are the president of a large company and you are interested in making some changes to the way that the
company runs. You would like to see some creativity in administrative processes, rather than simply continuing
the way things have always been done. Which of the following should you do?
a. Hire new managers from outside the company, because the existing managers are vulnerable to the effects
of mental set.
b. Encourage retired managers to come back temporarily, because experienced managers would be less
vulnerable to the effects of mental set.
c. Promote young employees to positions of power, because young adults are more likely to take advantage
of functional fixedness.
d. Hire more women for management positions, because women are less vulnerable to functional fixedness. Answer: a In attempting to solve the "nine dot problem," few individuals attempt to draw a line outside the imaginary
boundary surrounding the nine dots. This is not a rule associated with the problem, but is imposed by the
problem solver. What is this an example of?
a. trial-and-error learning
b. functional fixedness
c. mental set
d. unnecessary constraints Answer: d Alex is dealing with a new problem that he has never encountered. He begins to consider all of the various
methods that he has used to solve problems in the past. What is Alex thinking about, according to Newell and
Simon?
a. the mental set
b. the problem space
c. heuristics
d. algorithm Answer: b When Alaina is working on her bicycle, she brings her entire tool kit out on the driveway and starts pulling
wrenches from the tool kit at random, trying them until she finds one that fits. What type of approach is Alaina
using?
a. alternate outcomes analysis
b. working backward
c. forming subgoals
d. trial and error Answer: d You attempt possible solutions to a problem, then discard the ones that don't work until you find one that does.
What is this method of problem solving called?
a. working backward
b. algorithmic
c. trial and error
d. heuristic Answer: c What is an algorithm?
a. a guiding principle used in problem solving
b. a methodical procedure for trying all possible solutions to a problem
c. it is equivalent to a heuristic
d. the set of possible pathways to a solution considered by a problem solver Answer: b Lance is trying to solve a complex anagram puzzle. He systematically tries every potential solution by testing each
possible combination of the letters provided. What is Lance doing in this case?
a. working backward
b. using means-ends analysis
c. using a heuristic
d. using an algorithm Answer: d Which of the following statements is LEAST accurate?
a. Algorithms may be impractical when the problem space is large.
b. If an algorithm is available for a problem, it guarantees that a solution can eventually be found.
c. Algorithms exist for all clearly defined problems.
d. Algorithms can be used to apply the trial-and-error approach systematically. Answer: c In which of the following situations would an algorithm be most useful?
a. helping a group decide which restaurant to go to
b. generating a shopping list
c. opening a lock when you know the combination is three numbers
d. providing a diagnosis for someone in an emergency room Answer: c Vivian has forgotten the last digit of her locker combination. She carefully tries every number in order until she
finds the one that works. What is Vivian using in this case?
a. functional fixedness
b. an algorithm
c. framing
d. a heuristic Answer: b Salvador hates to work through the problems on his calculus assignments step by step, and he often tries
shortcuts that might save him some time. What does Salvador prefer to use?
a. heuristics
b. functional fixedness
c. analogies
d. algorithms Answer: a Esmeralda wants to use her roommate's computer to work on her term paper but the roommate has password-
protected the computer. Rather than starting at "a" and systematically testing every possible word in the English

language, Esmeralda tries using her roommate's birthdate and pets' names. What is Esmeralda using in this case?
a. representativeness
b. reframing
c. an algorithm
d. a heuristic Answer: d When is working backward a good strategy to follow?
a. when you have many options at the beginning of a problem, but few at the end
b. when the problem does not have a well-specified goal
c. when a problem has obvious subgoals
d. when you can recognize the similarity between two problems Answer: a In which case will working backward to solve a problem be an effective strategy?
a. when a problem has a well-defined endpoint
b. when it is necessary to change the representation of a problem
c. when a problem has multiphasic branch points
d. when a problem is unsolvable by heuristics Answer: a Mayra wants to generate a set of anagrams for a contest in the campus paper. To generate the anagrams, she
starts with the words that the contestants need to come up with to win the contest, and then scrambles the letters.
In this case, Mayra's method of solving the problem is consistent with which problemsolving heuristic?
a. means-end analysis
b. searching for analogies
c. trial and error
d. working backward Answer: d Which heuristic are you applying if you solve a current problem using the solution to a previous, similar problem?
a. formulating subgoals
b. working backward from the goal
c. searching for analogies
d. the availability heuristic Answer: c You've observed the similarities between a new problem to be solved and one you've successfully solved in the
past. What is this called?
a. the alternative outcomes effect
b. an algorithm
c. shaping
d. using analogies Answer: d When Graham uses the printer in the library, the paper keeps jamming in the machine. He takes the paper out of
the paper tray, fans it, and then flips it over, so the other side of the paper feeds first. This is the way he solves
similar problems on the photocopy machine at the office where he works. Which problem-solving heuristic is
consistent with Graham's method of solving the problem?
a. working backward
b. searching for analogies
c. means-end analysis
d. trial and error Answer: b Why do diagrams sometimes facilitate problem solving?
a. They aid in the search for analogies.
b. They change the representation of the problem.
c. They make it easier to execute algorithms.
d. They relax constraints on problem solutions. Answer: b Charlene was packing for a trip and she started to just pile all of her favourite clothes into her suitcase. She
realized that she didn't have room for everything that she would like to take so she made a list of how many
items she would need for the five days that she would be away and selected just the number of items that she
would need. Which strategy did Charlene use?
a. an algorithm
b. working backward
c. changing the representation of the problem
d. searching for an analogy Answer: c Scott has been trying to write some computer code, but it isn't working. He decided to go to bed and try again
in the morning, and when he started again he immediately detected and fixed the problem. What does this
example illustrate?
a. incubation effect
b. field dependence
c. searching for analogies
d. mental set Answer: a Clarice has a tendency to accept the physical environment as given and makes little if any attempt at analyzing or
restructuring it. Which of the following describes Clarice?
a. extrinsically motivated
b. heuristic
c. field dependent
d. a novice at problem solving Answer: c Tiffany has received the same error message on her computer five times in a row. She can't understand why she
keeps getting the error message, because she is sure she is executing the steps in the correct order. Her friend
Daisy suggests that Tiffany try a different computer terminal. When Tiffany does so, everything works just fine.
Which of the following describes Tiffany, based on this incident?
a. cognitively rigid
b. field dependent
c. high in metacognition
d. analogous Answer: b Levi enjoys solving logical reasoning problems. He seems to have a knack for looking at problems in new ways
and reorganizing the components of problems in creative ways. Which of the following is likely about Levi?
a. He will introduce unnecessary constraints into problems that he is working on.
b. He is field dependent.
c. He uses algorithms more frequently than heuristics in solving problems.
d. He relies more heavily on internal than external frames of reference. Answer: d During NASA's Apollo 13 mission, the ground engineers had to devise a new way of cleaning the capsule air
supply, using only the materials the astronauts had on board the space capsule. Which engineers would be most
likely to be successful, based on the work of Witkin and his colleagues?
a. those who were high in metacognition
b. those who used the availability heuristic
c. those who were field independent
d. those who were trained in engineering Answer: c What is the origin of holistic styles of thinking, according to Nisbett and his colleagues?
a. ancient Chinese philosophies
b. contemporary educational practices that stress critical thinking skills
c. contemporary educational practices that stress collaboration
d. ancient Greek philosophies Answer: a Sean was stranded in the desert after his plane crashed. Which cognitive style would give him the best chance for
survival under these circumstances?
a. algorithmic
b. risk aversion
c. heuristic
d. field independence Answer: d In cultures that depend on hunting and gathering for subsistence, which cognitive style is more adaptive?
a. algorithmic
b. field dependent
c. field independent
d. risk averse Answer: c Tylo belongs to a nomadic hunter-gatherer tribe in the South American jungle. Which of the following is Tylo
likely to exhibit based on what is known about cultural differences in cognitive style?
a. fast mapping
b. belief perseverance
c. field independence
d. field dependence Answer: c Darius belongs to a religious sect whose livelihood is based on agriculture. There are strict rules regarding dress
and behaviour, and children are expected to help in the fields as soon as they are old enough. Which of the
following is Darius likely to exhibit based on what is known about cultural differences in cognitive style?
a. field independence
b. belief perseverance
c. field dependence
d. fast mapping