Chapter 8 The Teaching Profession PDF

Chapter 8 The Teaching Profession Music education is a social experience! —Clifford Madsen From its beginnings in one-room schoolhouses, public education has emerged as a core institu- tion in American soci...

Chapter 8 The Teaching Profession Music education is a social experience! —Clifford Madsen From its beginnings in one-room schoolhouses, public education has emerged as a core institu- tion in American society, with teachers at its center. As one of society’s primary socialization agents, teachers serve as a bridge between community standards and educational benchmarks. The role of teachers directly reflects the reciprocal arrangement between education and society. Just as different cultures influence education, they seek to shape the role and function teachers perform in achieving education goals. From a sociological perspective, as society’s expectations for education change, so do perceptions of how teachers function, how well their duties are performed, and the role in which they function both in and outside of schools. Chapter 8 will present educational components and issues that affect what and how teachers perform their duties and the teaching professional as a whole. The premise is that to be as professional teacher, an individual knows not only how to teach well, but is also knowledgeable of issues, people, and events that influence education. The novice teacher will soon recognize, as veteran teachers already do, that many components and issues are not directly associated with classroom activities and are often out of the control of most teachers. Teaching and Society The teaching profession is an ever-changing concept, largely due to societal expectations. As an interactive participant in educational systems, teachers are often influenced by their cultural backgrounds, including how they were enculturated into the teaching profession. Teachers differ in age, gender, educational background, and social class, each influencing how an individual will teach (Ballantine & Spade, 2012). Differences extend to music educators, as teaching identities, frequently intertwined with both performance and teaching behaviors, reflect how and why indi- viduals teach. Despite their differences, teachers are the backbone of education and frequently the face of every educational approach. Understanding the role of the teacher is the key to understanding our educational system. Perhaps no other society in the world demands more of education and its teachers than Ameri- can society. Teachers in the United States are not only expected to distribute knowledge, but are also viewed as protectors of morality and character, gatekeepers between right and wrong, good and evil. Historically, society has asked teachers to promote patriotism, take loyalty oaths, help defeat communism, win technological races, solve poverty, improve race relations, and guide students into the global labor markets (Lortie, 2002; Thayer & Levit, 1966). Furthermore, should educators teach students to pass tests created by states and national reformers, or concentrate on  The Teaching Profession 119 preparing individuals to save the United States’ position in the global economy? Ever-changing expectations make it easy to see that the role teachers have played, and presumably will continue to play, may be the most misunderstood position in our society. The interpretations of “teacher” are frequently blurred between professional educator, parent, doctor, psychologist, and religious leader. Beginning with No Child Left Behind, all individuals seeking to teach must be “highly qualified” (No Child Left Behind, 2001). This requirement has directly affected the role, purpose, training, and certification of teachers (Spring, 2014). Music educators must also meet highly qualified requirements, and thus are also affected by the new legislation (Robinson, 2012). Consequently, society’s expectations and changing concept of “teacher” extends to music educators. For example, should music teachers: 1. Transmit traditional music genres, skills, and values? 2. Serve both the community and school? 3. Teach to specific music competencies or to individual talents? 4. Concentrate on the “talented” or the masses? 5. Reflect contemporary tastes or present traditional music? 6. Justify music on musical elements or nonmusical aspects? As a profession, music education has been called upon to meet society’s needs, from the develop- ment of 17th-century singing schools for improving the quality of religious congregational sing- ing to music improving the patriotism and overall academic achievement of young Americans (Birge, 1966; Keene, 1987). Similar to all teachers, contemporary music educators’ roles have evolved to reflect public perceptions, yet they still approach teaching in much the same manner as they have historically(Labuta & Smith 1997). From the beginning of formal music instruction in this country, the emphasis on large performance group instruction has existed. Over time, our society has changed; education has subsequently changed, yet music education remains much the same by maintaining an emphasis on large group instruction punctuated with public perfor- mances. An emphasis on individual or small group experiences rarely occurs. Despite varying expectations to which teachers are held accountable, every societal group in the United States appears to view teachers as links between the past, the present, and the future (Spring, 2006). For music teachers, this expectation involves building a bridge between the musical world and the education world, including expectations concerning education and schooling instructional concepts, process and product goals, different cultures, and both aes- thetic and functional aspects of music. Cultural expectations have always required teachers to prepare students to be successful in multiple manners. As society’s concerns have moved from moral to global expectations, teaching approaches have evolved to meet these goals (Spring, 2014). The recognition of a more global pluralistic perspective requires teachers to rethink instructional approaches that have been based on pre-existing authority, strict content, or a narrow methodology. Increasing expectations of a global perspective demands expanding instructional approaches to include more focus on indi- vidual differences, curiosities, and interests. Relevancy has become a component of immediacy, as both impact the importance of information and experiences on individual lifestyle. Demands of global perspectives apply to music education. The global information age, often gleaned through social media and networking, enables students to immediately access and share music they relate to and value. Exposure has led to students expecting more from their school music experiences. However, an individual focus is incompatible with many existing curricular structures, which often emphasize group instruction. The traditional American role of teacher frequently fails to make connections from the past to the present, and to the future. In a more global society, making musical connections requires a comprehensive evaluation of students’ 120 The Teaching Profession cultures, their influences, and development. This requires a genuine evaluation of the changes in the role and function of professional music teachers within our educational system. Teaching as a Profession The teaching profession is a challenging yet rewarding vocation. One challenge is understand- ing the reality of a daily classroom. Becoming aware of the issues and responsibilities affect- ing the music classroom is a necessary component of becoming a professional educator. While many in society believe teachers spend their entire day instructing students, the reality is that non-instructional responsibilities comprise a majority of every teacher’s daily professional life. The reward is evident in a survey conducted by Goodlad (1984), which reported the primary reasons individuals gave for entering the teaching profession were “having a satisfying job” and “wanting to help children.” Many people believe that teaching is more than a vocation; rather it is a lifestyle of enduring dedication. Teachers have their own language, jargon, dress, social and professional interactions, clubs and organizations. Whether viewed as a vocation, career, or life- style, teaching is a complicated task comprised of multiple components, challenges, and rewards. Becoming a music teacher is also a complicated endeavor. Each year many college students declare their academic major as music education. However, do they really know what this means? Are young students aware of the challenges and commitment required to complete the education degree and become a successful teacher? Many students report they hope to become music teach- ers because they love music, want to share this love with others, and they enjoy school (Bergee, et. al, 2001; Madsen & Kelly, 2002). Some students state they had such a wonderful school expe- rience that they want to be like their former music teacher, while others felt they had such bad experiences that they need to return to their former school and “right the wrong” with regards to perceived poor instruction. Still others report they thought music was fun or they believed they could not be successful in another field (Kelly, 2000a, 2000b; Madsen & Kelly, 2002). Questions for Teachers 1. What factors, people, and/or events influenced your decision to become a music teacher? 2. How did your parents, teachers, and friends react to your decision to become a teacher? 3. When did you decide to become a music teacher? 4. What are characteristics you have that you believe will be useful as a teacher? 5. Do you believe that the qualifications to become a teacher are easily obtained? 6. Do you see yourself more as a musician-teacher or a teacher-musician? 7. What aspects of teaching do you think you will enjoy the most? What aspects might you enjoy the least? Music teachers are shaped by a variety of factors, including our families, peers, and music experiences. Research studies have indicated students most frequently choose to become music teachers while in high school. However, some students decide to pursue music education as early as elementary school or as late as college (Bergee, et. al, 2001; Madsen & Kelly, 2002). Further- more, students are usually influenced to become music teachers by their school music teacher. Interestingly, students indicate they are encouraged more by their teachers’ actions than actual  The Teaching Profession 121 Photo Figure 12 Becoming a professional music educator requires more than knowledge of the subject matter. words. Many students report they made the decision to pursue music as a profession during a musical moment such as a performance or rehearsal. They indicate these experiences were so profound that they felt a “calling” to become a teacher (Madsen & Kelly, 2002) and become a role model for other students (Jones & Parkes, 2010). Often due to performing experiences, 122 The Teaching Profession many music teachers perceive themselves first as performers (Cox, 1997, L’Roy, 1983; Roberts, 1991, 2000), frequently aspiring to be professional performing musicians. Their identity as musi- cians outweighs their identity as educators. However, as students move through the education curricula, exposure and interactions begin associating individuals more with teacher training. Initial field experiences provide opportunities to observe and interact in a teacher role. Con- sequently, students become more enculturated to the behaviors and expectations required to successfully enter the teaching profession (Froehlich, 2007; Isbell, 2008). The desire to become a teacher and the self-concept of teacher role identity can strengthen through involvement in teacher-like activities such as field experiences and student teaching (Jones & Parkes, 2010; Kil- lian, Dye, & Wayman, 2011; Paul, Teachout, Sullivan, Kelly, Bauer, & Raiber, 2001; Raiber & Teachout, 2014). Lortie (2002) found individuals make decisions to pursue teaching as a vocation based on attractors and facilitators. Attractors are variables that convince individuals to select teaching as a career rather than another vocation. Lortie stated that there are five attractors to teaching: (a) the interpersonal theme, which allows for extended interaction with young people, (b) the social theme, which perceives teachers as performing a special mission in our society, (c) the continuation theme, which indicates that teachers are individuals who liked school when they were students and continued to desire to be in school settings as adults, (d) the material benefits of steady, secure employment, adequate pay, regular time off, and a certain amount of prestige, and (e) the time compatibility, which acknowledges teachers are contracted to work consider- ably fewer days each year than the typical American worker. Lortie stated that facilitators are variables that help individuals enter the teaching profession. Accordingly, there are two facilita- tor variables: (a) a wide-decision range that allows individuals to become a teacher at any point in their life, and (b) subjective warrant variables that allows a wide degree of opinion regarding the qualifications for teachers. Kelly (2005) surveyed preservice music teachers using Lortie’s research to determine the extent that attractor and facilitator variables might influence undergraduate preservice teach- ers’ decisions to pursue music education as an occupation. When comparing these results to Lortie’s, the data revealed that: (a) most subjects decided to pursue music education as a voca- tion while they were in high school, (b) most wanted to initially teach high school, and (c) while many eventually wanted to teach at the college level, most subjects eventually wanted to teach high school. Overall, the subjects: (a) enjoyed working with children, (b) thought that teachers could improve society, and (c) enjoyed the school/learning environment. However, the subjects were undecided regarding issues related to teacher income and if teaching provided regular time-off opportunities. The variables regarding opportunities to decide to become teach- ers and ease of requirement to become teachers were not influential in decisions to become music teachers. Lortie’s and Kelly’s research underscores the realization that to fully understand the scope of the teaching profession requires an acknowledgement that teaching is more than an instructional classroom experience. Individuals must be aware of an array of instructional and non-instructional variables affecting each individual teacher. This awareness is reflected in characteristics stated by the American Association of State Colleges and Universities (2006) for all professional educa- tors to possess. These characteristics include knowledge of the: 1. Subject matter they are teaching. 2. Psychological and physical natures of students they plan to teach. 3. Political and social structures of institutions in which they will be teaching. 4. Methods by which people learn. 5. Best methods for teaching a particular subject matter.  The Teaching Profession 123 Having knowledge and awareness of basic expectations extends to music teachers. The reality of teaching music is that while one may expect teachers to work with students, a tremendous amount of planning and organization must occur outside the instructional phase of the classroom to enable teachers to actually teach (Mark & Madura, 2010). Many teachers struggle with the “business side” of education and frequently underestimate the amount of time and effort required to stay organized and accountable (Mark & Madura, 2010). Non-instructional activities include score preparation, arranging for guest clinicians and private teachers, being attentive to budget issues, dealing with parent and administrative concerns, reserving buses for trips, maintaining inventory of instruments and music, participating in faculty meetings and committees, meeting music dealers, arranging and setting up rehearsal rooms, and repairing equipment. From an instructional perspective, music teachers need to have knowledge of many different skills to effectively teach music. The organization responsible for accrediting university schools of music, the National Association of Schools of Music (NASM) (2014), requires music edu- cation majors to have skills and knowledge in areas of music theory, history, sight-singing and dictation, composition/arranging, technology, conducting, a variety of performance experiences, and various music methodologies. This knowledge must culminate in a student teaching experi- ence where each student demonstrates the ability to bring each skill together in a comprehensive educational experience. Specifically, NASM (2014) lists seven desirable attributes for prospective music teachers. 1. Personal commitment to the art of music. 2. The ability to lead students to an understanding of music as an art form. 3. The capability to inspire others and to excite the imagination of students. 4. The ability to articulate logical rationales for music as a basic component of general education. 5. The ability to work productively within specific education systems. 6. The ability to evaluate ideas, methods, and policies in the arts for their impact on the musi- cal and cultural development of students. 7. The ability and desire to remain current with developments in the art of music and in teaching. From these attributes it is easy to see that effectively teaching music requires both tremen- dous individual desire and a broad awareness of multiple issues. Many attributes require a strong social perspective and understanding. A student’s background, family environment, peer rela- tions, academic experiences, and overall health are just some cultural issues that affect a student’s performance and must be acknowledged by the teacher. Providing a quality music education experience becomes more than conducting a rehearsal or performance. Music educators quickly find that rehearsing and performing music is not necessarily only teaching information and skills. Thus, being aware of the many attributes and issues affecting the teaching profession is part of being a professional music educator. Another component of the teaching profession are teacher unions. It is estimated that over 90% of America’s teachers belong to a professional association or union (Spring, 2006). Among many organizations representing educators in this country are two primary teacher unions: the National Education Association (NEA) and the American Federation of Teachers (AFT). Both are large and powerful forces in American society and are often political in their focus. Each participates in local, state, and national elections. Consequently, both unions are influential in shaping the direction of American education policy while advancing the interests of its members. Both unions share many common issues while representing different segments of the education profession. While conflicts are common between the unions, both represent struggles teachers 124 The Teaching Profession face and seek ways to improve educational conditions. Consequently, both unions participate in the constantly changing issues and trends in education. Recognizing that teaching music is a constantly changing vocation involving many variables raises a series of questions affecting the future of music education. These questions include: 1. Can anyone teach? Should there be a standard national requirement for individuals seek- ing to become teachers? Should every individual be required to be fully certified in order to teach? 2. Who controls the content and distribution of knowledge within a school curriculum? To what extent does censorship affect the school music curriculum? 3. What is the role of the professional music teacher? What components of school and society should professional teachers be accountable to? 4. What factors lead to shortages of teachers, including music teachers? 5. What is the role of teacher unions in the teaching profession? Each question poses a difficult decision for the future success of the music education profession. The answers may lie in understanding the consequences of being labeled as a “professional” in our society. Challenges to the Teaching Profession What does the label “professional music educator” mean? What does being a “professional” sig- nify? Professionalism has long been a source of hope and frustration for educators. From the early 20th century, teachers have sought a high level of professionalism in an attempt to acquire recognition for the complex, specialized nature of their work (Ingersoll & Merrill, 2012; Spring 2014; Thayer, & Levit, 1966). Yet within our society there is confusion and contention concern- ing the professionalization of teachers. At the center of the debate is the question of what con- stitutes professionalism. Is a professional an individual who has obtained advanced training and knowledge, or are individuals professionals when they hold a certain attitude about their work (Ingersoll & Merrill, 2012)? The label of “professional” is frequently associated with an individual who is paid for working. Professionals are individuals considered by some in society as knowledgeable experts in a specific field or vocation. These individuals usually have acquired certain skills and behaviors unique to their profession that enable them to succeed in a chosen occupation or activity. Applied in this manner, there are many types of professionals in our society, including athletes, salespeople, artists, etc. However, certain vocations are considered professional vocations due to established require- ments necessary to obtain the label “professional.” These vocations frequently carry a certain level of status in society. These professional vocations include doctors, lawyers, certified public accountants, certain engineers, and teachers. To successfully practice these vocations requires individuals to complete the following processes and skills: 1. Acquire specialized knowledge and skills by obtaining a specific degree in the vocational area from a college or university (frequently advanced degrees are desired, if not required); 2. Pass some type of certification exam, often at the state or national level, which leads to the attainment of credentials or licensing; 3. Complete an internship or mentorship period; 4. Stay abreast of changing current skills and information through constant professional devel- opment and re-certification while practicing their careers.  The Teaching Profession 125 Individuals who obtain certified professional vocations are frequently among the highest com- pensated members of society and often imbued with high social stature. It is interesting that teachers are considered in the same venue as other professional voca- tions by our society. Data from nationwide surveys continue to show that teaching is considered one of the most prestigious professions in our society (Ozimek, 2014). Teachers are frequently mentioned as parental figures and important influences in the lives of presidents and busi- ness CEOs (Spring, 1988). To obtain the label of “professional,” teachers must meet the same standards required by other professional vocations, including attaining specialized degrees and obtaining current and continuous certification. Yet their status as professionals is frequently threatened. Spring (2014) states that, while teaching as a profession has historically been debated, the federal guidelines of No Child Left Behind and Race to the Top have increased the debate, due to the requirement that every teacher must be a “highly qualified” teacher. Such requirements also apply to music teachers (Robinson, 2012). According to Spring (2014), and Ingersoll and Merrill (2012) this legislative provision changed the teaching profession is several manners: 1. Credentials: the requirements for licensing teachers has moved from the local and state lev- els to the federal level. However, qualifications vary, with some debating if teacher education courses are necessary as opposed to practical knowledge and previous job experience. Inter- estingly, Ingersoll and Merrill (2012) report that other traditional professions rarely lower their standards to recruit and retain members. For example, some organizations, such as Teach for America and El Sistema, require little if any specific training to become a teacher. Even among different types of schools there are big differences, as teachers at private schools often do not have the same credentials as teachers in public schools (Ingersoll & Mer- rill, 2012). Consequently, debates have occurred regarding the qualifications to become a teacher. 2. Specialization: No Child Left Behind requires that teachers only teach classes in their area of specialization. However, discrepancies exist as rural and urban schools, and schools with higher levels of low socioeconomic students, need teachers to teach in many areas outside their specialization. For example, science teachers teach biology, chemistry, natural sci- ence, and physics. Meeting this requirement can be further problematic with the shortage of teachers in many areas. 3. Teacher Autonomy: many new teachers believe they will determine the content of their instruction. However, through No Child Left Behind and the later Race to the Top legis- lation, many state and national education standards have altered what and how teachers teach. Benchmarks such as those set by the Common Core Standards, the National Stand- ards for Arts Education, and state benchmarks require students pass various standardized tests in order to graduate and for teachers to be evaluated. Consequently, teachers often have little input in their classroom curriculum (Raiber & Teachout, 2014). Challenges to the teaching profession have led to questions regarding the role of teachers. For example, are teachers considered technicians or professionals (Raiber & Teachout, 2014)? Teachers as technicians are driven by outside sources such as benchmarks or other outside cur- ricular guides. Thus, classroom environments focus almost solely on classroom resources and stimuli (Raiber & Teachout, 2014). As professionals, teachers base decisions on an awareness and understanding of student needs. They adjust the presentation and informational flow to how students learn. Consequently, professional educators are influenced by individuality and recognize the large influence and role of the community in every student’s education (Raiber & Teachout, 2014). 126 The Teaching Profession The debate over teaching as a profession is highlighted by the differences in education, espe- cially differences between public and private schools (Ingersoll & Merrill, 2012). Many indi- viduals act as if anyone can be a teacher, that life experiences alone can qualify a person for the classroom. This perception affects many aspects of the teaching profession. Subsequently, despite numerous federal and state mandates, many schools at both levels fail to meet many characteris- tics associated with other vocations considered professional. As such, teaching is often treating as a semi-professional vocation by many in society (Ingersoll & Merrill, 2012; Lortie, 2002). Teacher Certification Issues American society has long been concerned with the qualification of its teachers. Reports in the 1980s portrayed teachers as lacking in basic intellectual skills and competencies in e specific subject areas (Serow, Castelli, & Castelli, 2000; Spring, 2006). Due to changing societal percep- tions of what constitutes a certified teacher and calls for higher standards for teachers (e.g., No Child Left Behind), the traditional processes of certifying teachers are changing. There are now multiple methods for achieving the label of certified teacher. Primarily, individuals seek teacher certification via (a) traditional statewide teacher certification processes, (b) national board cer- tification, or (c) alternative state certification processes. Common Types of Teacher Certification Traditional—individuals follow a predetermined statewide process. National Board Certification—identifies experienced master teachers capable of raising education standards. Alternative certification—varies from state to state; typically, individuals do not intern or student teach while they are students, and do not complete advanced courses. Lortie (2002) states that one attraction to becoming a teacher is the ease of the process. How- ever, there is no single approach. Teacher certification requirements are unique among states, with each determining its own knowledge and skill requirements for certifying individuals to become teachers (Ingersoll & Merrill, 2012). Most states require individuals to pass a statewide exam or some form of national exam, such as the Praxis exam (2015). Because information required on teacher certification exams is usually determined by individual state agencies, the use of required examinations helps states to control the quality of teachers, and ultimately the quality of instruction within schools by controlling the content in teacher education programs. As teachers move from state to state, they must re-apply for a different license from each state by completing that state’s certification process, which contains information the state believes each certified teacher should know. Once certified, teachers must maintain their certification at prescribed intervals, usually every 7–10 years, based on state requirements (Henry, 2005). Despite certification process, teachers have long been criticized for being ill-prepared for the classroom (Lortie, 2002). Even the label of “certified” is being questioned within the teaching profession (Report of the National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, 1996; Spring 2006). Do individuals really need a teaching degree and certificate to become a teacher? Some believe that the process for gaining a teaching certification acts as a screening or “gatekeeper” and thus protects the quality of teachers in the profession. However, others seek the easing of restrictions as a way to allow individuals with special skills to more quickly become teachers and  The Teaching Profession 127 thus address teacher shortages (Ingersoll & Merrill, 2012). For instance, many private organiza- tions such as Teach for America (2014) and the growing El Sistema music program (El Sistema USA, 2014) do not require teachers to be certified and require very little if any direct education training. Individuals who take these alternative routes into teaching frequently begin teaching immediately upon being hired. It would appear few individuals entering the teaching profession expect long careers as teach- ers (Lortie, 2002). Many states are facing a shortage of certified teachers, especially in the areas of math and science (Ingersoll, 2001; Ingersoll & Perda, 2010; Merrow, 1999). One report states that approximately half of all teachers in the United States either move or leave the teaching profes- sion each year (Seidel, 2014). Individuals leave the teaching profession for a number of reasons, including retirement, change careers, family issues, and professional concerns such as school safety and accountability standards (Boyd, Grossman, Ing, Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2011; Dwor- kin & Tobe, 2012; Horng, 2009). The growing emphasis on standardized testing and resulting teacher evaluation processes such as value-added modeling have led many teachers to question their ability and willingness to teach. This concern has led many teachers to leave the profession (Darling-Hammond, 2010; Dworkin & Tobe, 2012). For example, a 1999 Education Weekly report estimated that 20% of all new teachers leave the classroom within the first three years of teaching, while 50% of all teachers quit within five years of teaching (Ingersoll, 2001; Merrow, 1999). To meet demand for teachers, school districts are pursuing individuals who, while not complet- ing specialized training in educational pedagogy, are completing alternative certification. While the method for obtaining alternative certification varies from state to state, typically individuals who obtain such certificates do not intern or student teach while they are students, and do not complete advanced courses providing information on topics such as classroom management, law, ethics, student motivation, developing teaching strategies, and school diversity. However, due to their background, these individuals usually have some amount of training in their area of interest (Berry, 2001; Henry 2005). The issue of alternative certification or any certification for entry into teaching is highly debated in education, including music education. Many educators consider any form of alterna- tive certification as demeaning and a lowering of professional standards (Cohen-Vogel & Smith, 2007). Proponents of alternative entry argue that job experience is all that is required for an effective teacher and that alternative entry helps ease teacher shortages (Ingersoll & Merrill, 2012). By implementing alternative certification procedures, or no certification requirements, many states are requiring less of individuals to be labeled “professional” teachers. This action may give society the perception that anyone can teach. Can anyone be a doctor, a lawyer, or an engineer? While desire is a powerful force in achieving any goal, the completion of strong requirements to obtain “professional” status separates those with true ability from those with only interest. No one disputes that the existing teacher shortage will continue. The National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future (1996) predicted that from 1996–2020 the biggest overhaul of the teaching force in American history would occur. The immediate intent of alternative certifica- tion methods to help ease an existing teacher shortage may be a well-intended “stopgap” meas- ure. However, data suggest that alternatively certified teachers may be less qualified than more traditionally certified teachers (Cohen-Vogel & Smith, 2007). Learning “on the job” means that student progress may be hindered while the individual learns to teach. The students are in essence laboratory subjects in an experiment while the individual develops teaching skills. Thus, ques- tions regarding preparation of alternatively certified individuals to enter the classroom remain: 1. Is alternative certification good for education, and specifically music education? 2. Are alternatively certified teachers fully prepared to teach effectively? 128 The Teaching Profession 3. What are the effects on student learning? Do students, taught by teachers in their first year of teaching who are seeking alternative certification, achieve as well as students taught by traditionally trained teachers? 4. What does the issue of alternative certification do to the teaching profession? Teacher Accountability The term “accountability” denotes being responsible for actions and outcomes. In education, accountability specifies that teachers are responsible for what students learn. Due to the broad purposes of American education, a large, diverse segment of our population holds teachers accountable for student learning. Those most directly affected by educational outcomes have a particular interest in what and how well information is taught. These groups include parents, students, businesses, the military, religious organizations, and politicians. Each group has a vested interest in ensuring that teachers are accountable for teaching what they consider necessary for students to be successful. Education accountability has increased in great part because of American taxpayers demand- ing more responsibility from politicians and school administrators for taxes they pay. In every state, a certain percentage of each individual’s paycheck is deducted to support public education. As the public’s perception of education changes, so does its desire for a better understanding of how their taxes are spent educating members of society. Typically, the public questions school administrators and politicians who control tax expenditures. Most recently, this has resulted in a dramatic increase in statewide testing to demonstrate not only how taxes are spent, but also the results of tax expenditures. Most states have some form of statewide standardized testing intended to measure how much students have learned, and how well teachers have taught. The results of testing vary among states. Florida, for example, requires students to pass state-mandated tests at the fourth-, eighth-, and tenth-grade levels in order to advance to the next grade level, and ultimately graduate with a high school diploma (Florida Department of Education, 2006a). Schools must teach skills and knowledge required for students to pass these tests. Consequently, schools are held accountable for this instruction by receiving grades based on scores of their students. Each school’s grade is publicized so parents and the public can see the effects of their tax dollars. Schools receiving con- tinuous low grades can be shut down. Teachers and school administrators can lose jobs if students do not receive adequate scores. Furthermore, some states are attempting to increase accountability and teacher assessment by proposing a “pay-for-performance” approach that connects the amount of teachers’ pay to how well their students score on standardized testing (National School Boards Associa- tion, 2007). This type of accountability, known as value-added modeling (VAM), is a central component of the Race to the Top federal education program. VAM measures a teacher’s contribution to each student’s academic growth by comparing students’ test scores each year to the scores of the previous year. The scores are then used to compare students across the same grade and to compare teachers to teachers, often resulting in a ranking of teachers. The rankings are then used to determine merit pay increases (Darling-Hammond, 2010; Marder, 2012). Proponents of VAM believe the data gleaned from test score analyses are more objective and show the degree of direct impact on teacher effectiveness. However, teachers claim that test scores alone do not show the impact of a teacher on student growth. They point to the numerous variables influencing student growth that are not accounted for in VAM assessments. Further- more, VAM does not account for differences in students, such as limited English speaking skills and disabilities (Darling-Hammond, 2010; Ravitch, 2010).  The Teaching Profession 129 Teacher Salaries Historically, teachers have been paid at or near the average wage for skilled workers, but below levels customarily received by most other certified professional occupations requiring equiva- lent levels of education, training, or expertise (Ingersoll & Merrill, 2012; Spring, 2006). Thus, teacher salaries are one reason for the existing teacher shortage (Lortie, 2002; Spring, 2006). It is interesting, however, that teaching is one profession in our society in which females are paid more equally to their male counterparts (Lortie, 2002). Why teaching is not equally compensated with other professional vocations remains a ques- tion. One theory is that teaching is not a true profession; rather it is a service occupation that does not generate income or commerce (Lortie, 2002). Another theory is that many individu- als believe anyone can teach because teaching does not really require expert knowledge, only common sense. Finally, many believe low teacher salaries are offset by an array of fringe benefits including job security, long vacations, and flexible hours (Lortie, 2002). However, teacher salaries have followed the laws of supply and demand. During the 2011–2012 school year, the national average salary for public school teachers in the United States was $56, 643.00 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2014d). School districts experiencing severe teacher shortages are offering signing bonuses to attract new teachers. However, because school districts may be more interested in attracting new teachers than keeping experienced teachers, the steady salary increase has occurred only for beginning teachers, not experienced teachers. Evidence of this occurrence is that the average annual increase for experienced teachers was only 2.7% from 2001–2002, and from 1999 the average salary for experienced teachers rose just 1.6% (American Federation of Teachers, 2005). There is a wide disparity in teacher salaries across the country (American Federation of Teach- ers, 2005). States in the New England, Mid-east and Far West regions of the country report higher teacher salaries. States in the Plains region report the lowest salaries. This disparity also exists within states. Since public school teachers are most often state employees, their salaries are based on taxes collected from citizens and businesses in that state. Most states pay teachers a base salary. States with larger populations typically pay higher teacher salaries due to a larger citizen tax base. In these states, funding for public education, including teacher salaries, comes from state individual income taxes. From that point, base salaries may be supplemented by the differ- ent local school districts. Funding for supplements usually comes from property taxes adminis- tered by individual communities. These taxes are frequently sales taxes on goods purchased at local stores and businesses. Thus, communities with a greater number of businesses and larger populations often pay higher supplemental salaries. Salary differences also exist among types of schools and schools with differing socioeconomic levels (Kozol, 1991). Ingersoll & Merrill, 2012 report that, on average, individuals with a bach- elor’s degree and no teaching experience earn 25% more in a public school than a private school. Additionally, private schools frequently offer fewer benefits. Salary increases have also remained small, and the process to receive an increase has changed in many states. Traditionally, teachers have been paid on a salary schedule that provides auto- matic salary increases with each year of teaching service and for added academic degrees (Spring, 2006). Under the traditional schedules, often known as the stepladder system, all beginning certified teachers are paid the same amount of starting base salary. For each year of teaching experience salaries increase at a fixed amount. A major complaint regarding the stepladder system is that it does not reward teachers who demonstrate exceptional abilities and outstanding accomplishments, while providing job security for teachers not performing their responsibilities well (Spring, 2006). This issue is usually associ- ated with the concept of tenure. Tenure is a contract between the teacher and the local school 130 The Teaching Profession board after teachers have successfully completed their initial probationary period, usually the first three to five years of full-time teaching. Once a teacher receives a tenured contract, it is difficult to dismiss them unless an individual is proven incompetent or has committed a felony law infrac- tion (Spring, 2006). Tenure is a controversial issue among many communities and schools. Many administrators feel once a teacher achieves tenure there is no motivation to continue to grow, stay updated on changing educational approaches and information, or become involved in the school environment. However, many teachers believe tenure offers them job security and protec- tion from possible discrimination in handling student issues (Serow, Castelli, & Castelli, 2000; Spring 2014). However, many schools states have begun to eliminate tenure for new teachers (Dworkin & Tobe, 2012; Spring, 2014), citing the need to eliminate poor-performing teachers. Responding to controversy surrounding tenure, many school districts have begun to offer extended contracts, or performance-based contracts, thus replacing tenure contracts (Spring, 2006, 2014). Similar to tenure contracts, extended contracts are offered to teachers who have successfully completed their initial probationary level. Instead of granting a permanent tenure contract, the teacher is offered an extended contract, usually lasting five to ten years. At the end of the extended contract, the school principal and consulting teachers review and evaluate the teacher’s accomplishments and job performance. If assessed to be satisfactory, the teacher is offered another extended contract. This process repeats itself throughout the teacher’s career. Another salary method used to address differences in teacher ability and accomplishments is the merit pay system or performance-based pay. The intent of this system is to reward teachers based on their annual accomplishments and teaching (Spring, 2006, 2014). Thus, merit pay seeks to provide incentive for extra effort on the part of the teacher who in return receives salary increases for their work. Their school principal and usually a consulting teacher evaluate teach- ers in this system annually. Under the merit system, teachers are not guaranteed annual salary increases or equal increase in compensation. Salary increases are based solely on the merit of each teacher. This practice has raised questions regarding what constitutes merit teaching and the qualifications of individuals to effectively evaluate teachers in all subject areas. Subjectivity may influence an individual’s perception of teacher accomplishments, resulting in many school districts basing teacher accom- plishment solely on student test standardized scores and teacher accountability (Spring, 2006). Yet these scores can be influenced by a variety of variables not under the control or influence of teachers. However, merit pay is a growing popular approach to rewarding teachers for job perfor- mance and accomplishments. One method used to address this issue is the use of career ladders for teachers. In career ladders, beginning teachers usually start out as apprentice or probationary teachers. Typically, individuals have temporary teacher licenses and stay at the apprentice level for two to three years. While they stay at the beginning teacher salary, the school principal and consulting teachers evaluate their contracts and job performances on an annual basis. Following the successful completion of the novice level, teachers can advance to various additional levels based on annual evaluations of their accomplishments by the school principal and consulting teachers. Each level comes with additional pay and stature. Teachers at more advanced levels are considered lead teachers or master teachers and are frequently used to mentor apprentice- and novice-level teachers (Spring, 2006). The fact remains that individuals who teach music do not necessarily teach for financial rewards. Music teachers frequently work long daily hours, including afternoon rehearsals, night concerts, and weekend trips (Scheib, 2003). Many activities contain additional supplemental pay from school districts. It is not unusual for music teachers to receive extra compensation for marching band, musicals, and other after school activities. Like many other educators, music teachers often spend summers seeking re-certification credits, planning fall marching band  The Teaching Profession 131 shows, and pursuing advanced degrees (Hamann, Daugherty, & Mills, 1987). Also, like many of their colleagues, music teachers supplement their own pay with outside jobs during the year. Many teach private lessons, direct church choirs, or perform in various ensembles (Madsen & Hancock, 2002). While some teachers regard this “moonlighting” as welcome diversion from teaching, for others it is a burden they trade for longer school hours and higher salaries (Hamann, Daugherty, & Mills, 1987). Working Conditions Every occupation has its own ideals, traditions, and ways to get things done. Teaching music is no exception, as it is a challenging profession. Historically, the training of teachers has focused more on learning methods and procedures than preparing students for the complexities of school environments (Froehlich, 2007). Teachers average a 45-hour work week that includes nights and weekends grading papers, preparing lessons, meeting parents, performing concerts, teach- ing individuals lessons, and conducting after school rehearsals. The National Center for Educa- tion Statistics (2014c) reported teachers encountered a 16 to 1 student-to-teacher ratio in the average public school classroom in 2010. Obviously, in large performing music ensembles this ratio increases dramatically, thereby increasing the stress on teacher time (Scheib, 2003). The demands on time often lead teachers to feel they must compromise ideals with the realities of teaching that may frequently rob students of learning opportunities (Task Force on Teaching as a Profession, 1986). Additionally, lost in the problem of adequate time is the time needed to stay updated on new knowledge by reading professional journals, learning new scores, and maintain- ing performance skills (Hamann, Daugherty, & Mills, 1987; Scheib, 2003). The demands on teachers can also lead to considerable stress and possible burnout. Research has shown music teachers encounter a high degree of stress in their jobs. Sources of stress include a lack of commitment from students, a perceived lack of support from administrators, colleagues, and parents, performances at concerts and festival competitions, and budgetary constraints (Bur- rack, Payne, Bazan, & Hellman, 2014; Hamann, Daugherty, & Mills, 1987; Scheib, 2003). A sur- vey by The Music Educators National Conference (2005) regarding teacher stress found 37% of music teachers spend 20% or more of their class time handling class management issues such as disruptions and student discipline problems. Other data from this survey showed that 31% of music teachers stated that their teaching contracts stipulate that teachers are expected to put in “overtime” in preparing lessons, performing concerts, and conducting rehearsals. Further- more, 65% of music teachers reported they do not receive additional compensation for out-of- class time. Interestingly, research shows music teachers themselves frequently cause stress. Since music teachers are often the sole determiners of their own curriculum and expectations, stress often stems from personal pressure to succeed or trying to match their musical beliefs/values sys- tem to the school’s and community’s music beliefs/values system (Hamann, Daugherty, & Mills, 1987; Scheib, 2003). School environments are complex organizations influenced by a variety of social, political, and educational agendas. It is the responsibility of professional educators to understand the culture of the educational setting in which they teach. For example, the value systems of students and par- ents may differ from those of the music teacher. Understanding the culture enables individuals to function within the organizational setting of school, the local school district, and the statewide school system in general. However, the goals of the individual teacher may not be the same as those in the organization. Frequently, teachers are subjected to bureaucratic authority and the consistent application of regulations over which they have little control. This feeling is espe- cially true as the emphasis on mandated testing and evaluation continues to grow (Elpus, 2014; Gerrity, 2009, Spring 2014). As a result, teachers may feel restricted in implementing objectives 132 The Teaching Profession and experiences they feel are best for students. Furthermore, regulations often dictate respon- sibilities that teachers must follow to make the educational system function properly. Thus, in addition to their teaching responsibilities, teachers (music teachers included) are required to supervise bus duty, monitor lunch rooms, hallways, and bathrooms, chaperon dances and other after school activities, meet parents, and attend other various functions that require school per- sonnel to be present. While these functions frequently conflict with personal time and more instructional activities (e.g., after school rehearsals), all teachers must contribute to the total school environment. Meeting the needs of every student, not just the music students, should be a goal of every music educator. This may involve participating in bureaucratic, non-music-related functions within the school environment. Despite the bureaucracy, music teachers have managed to retain substantial control over their own classroom activities (Mark & Madura, 2010; Raiber & Teachout, 2014). For example, unlike many teachers whose subject matter is controlled by required standardized tests or state mandates, music teachers have considerable freedom to select music for their rehearsals and performances. One reason for this is the physical layout of the school building (Serow, Castelli, & Castelli, 2000). School architecture has been labeled as “cellular,” designed to separate groups of people throughout the day. A complaint of many teachers is that, outside of lunchtime, they spend little time with other adults. While this isolation creates a degree of autonomy, it unfortunately also diminishes the possibility of cooperation with other teachers. Little time exists to discuss com- mon problems, professional issues, and intellectual topics, or exchange ideas with other teachers (Serow, Castelli, & Castelli, 2000). Music teachers are not immune from cellular isolation. Research has shown that a feeling of isolation is a fear of new music teachers as they enter the teaching profession, and contributes to the burnout of experienced teachers (Hamann, Daugherty, & Mills, 1987; Krueger, 2000). Music rooms are frequently separated from other more “academic” areas of the school. In larger schools, it is not unusual to find music rooms in a separate building altogether. Furthermore, many ele- mentary music teachers do not have a room at all, as they move from classroom to classroom, transporting their materials on a cart. Physical isolation prevents many music teachers from col- legial bonding with their fellow teachers and the overall school environment. Miscommunica- tion and misinterpretation of activities may result in conflict, tension, and an under-appreciation of the purpose of and accomplishments in the music classroom. Music teachers appear to cope with isolation and stress associated with their jobs in many ways. A study by Madsen and Hancock (2002) found music teachers frequently change schools in order to stay fresh and motivated. Teachers in this study stated that attending professional conferences helped them to cope with professional challenges. Professional conferences such as state and National Association for Music Education (NAfME) meetings enable music teachers to stay cur- rent, meet other educators who share similar challenges, and exchange ideas. Furthermore, music teachers are encouraged to actively participate in all areas of their school environment. This may require actively seeking opportunities to work with non-music colleagues. Becoming involved in the total school culture can have great results for students as well as teachers. Researchers have demonstrated that professional dialogue and collegiality have a great impact on teacher morale and retention by creating a therapeutic support system with other teachers (Hamann, Daugh- erty, & Mills, 1987; Scheib, 2003). Common Legal Issues Legal issues and many subsequent court decisions affect every aspect of the teaching profession. Issues involve activities from student publications to searching students to the performance of  The Teaching Profession 133 religious music by public school ensembles. One major legal issue is compulsory education. In 1922, the Compulsory Education Act was passed in Oregon, and later subsequently upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court. (Serow, Castelli, & Castelli, 2000). This law required every parent, guardian, or other person having control or charge over a child between the ages of eight and 16 years of age to send the child to a public school. Over the years the law has been amended to allow parents/guardians to send their children to schools other than public schools (e.g., private schools or home schooling), yet it still requires children attend a school or education setting. Many legal issues affecting teachers involve the First and Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution of the United States (Spring, 2006). The First Amendment addresses the issues of freedom of speech. For example, can public school teachers criticize the federal government? Can students conduct sit-ins on school property in protest of school regulations? Court decisions are frequently inconsistent, due to variance in situations. For example, while the courts recog- nize the importance of students and teachers having the right to express themselves, they also recognize the importance of maintaining order in schools and school boards retaining control. Issues relating to the Fourteenth Amendment are no less difficult. The Fourteenth Amend- ment guarantees that states cannot take away any rights granted to an individual as a citizen of the United States, which includes schools violating students’ basic rights as granted by the Con- stitution. Consider the possible ramification if a band director denies an individual who uses a wheelchair from marching in a parade or performing at a football game. Denying an individual in these situations could result in a claim of discrimination. Discrimination, defined as the unequal or different treatment of particular categories of people, is a major issue in education. An exam- ple is that schools cannot dismiss a student or teacher without due process. This has resulted in school districts having specified guidelines for the dismissal of students, as well as teachers. Recognizing that every situation is different, courts frequently have not made absolute binding decisions regarding most school legal issues. Students have legal rights in schools that are guaran- teed by the First and Fourteenth Amendments. However, actions by both students and teachers cannot cause a disruption in the educational process. It is the interpretation of what constitutes a “disruption” that often influences the direction of many court decisions. A growing legal concern for all teachers is the use of various social media. While various forms of technology have enabled teachers to connect to other teachers (e.g., email), social media out- lets such as Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, and MySpace have greatly expanded the ability to share information, pictures, and personal statements to anyone with access to a computer. While many of these cyberspace venues have excellent instructional and research applications (Gie- belhausen, 2015; Whitaker, Orman, & Yarbrough, 2014), they are also a legal concern, as many teachers share personal views and images of themselves which are in conflict with community or school standards for teachers. Contacting and engaging students through social media can lead to inappropriate interactions and communications. According to the Harvard Institute of Poli- tics (Institute of Politics, Harvard University, 2014), 84% of all teenagers in the United States used Facebook in 2014. Consequently, the possibility of connecting with a student, intentionally or not, is very likely. First Amendment rights to freedom of speech do not necessarily protect teachers whose postings may be considered as interrupting or distracting education processes, including moral and social expectations (Papandrea, 2012; Simpson, 2010). Education and legal officials are struggling with the legal ramifications of and their authority in determining the extent teachers can use social media in their personal lives (Papandrea, 2012; Simpson, 2010). Subsequently, all teachers should be mindful of community and school expectations, and any contact with students via cyberspace venues. Legally, teachers are responsible for protecting the rights of their students. The extent of legal- ity extends to holding teachers increasingly liable for harm that may come to students because 134 The Teaching Profession of teacher actions, discrimination, or negligence. Such actions could include students injured as a result of tripping over chairs in an unorganized music class, students being stung by a bee on the marching band field and no action taken if an allergic reaction occurs, or students experienc- ing dehydration or physical harm as a result of activities initiated by the teacher. In each case, the resulting consequences can be viewed as the teacher’s fault and thus can be used against the teacher. Furthermore, liable actions could include not reporting possible child abuse cases, including mental and physical harm, sexual abuse, and other maltreatment. Federal and state laws have been increasingly used to protect teachers. Still, the U.S. Supreme Court has not clearly defined if activities in a teacher’s private life can be used as a basis for dismissal from a school system (Spring 2014). While the personal lives of teachers may still be private, it is important they meet the community expectations and views of professional conduct. It is common for teachers to be held to a higher standard than publicly elected officials, includ- ing senators, governors, and even the President of the United States! Given the public nature of music teachers’ lives, it is possible that certain private behaviors are themselves likely to vio- late certain community standards and therefore distract from a teacher’s effectiveness in dealing with students and parents. Teachers must remember that it is unlikely they will be protected by the courts for engaging in certain felony behaviors, including inappropriate student contact and communications, drug use, theft, human physical harm, excessive drinking, or academic cheating. Music teachers are affected by many of the same legal issues as other educators. However, like many other teachers, they are frequently unaware of their legal responsibilities. For example, the issue of copyright infringement is a repeated violation of the law by many music educators. Mod- ern technologies have made information and materials increasingly accessible and easily copied, thus making misuse of documents, including music, more common (Liske, 1999). Infringements include redistribution of printed media, sound recordings, television tapings, digital materials, and Internet content, and photocopying music (Liske, 1999; Woody, 1994). Many teachers may believe they have the legal right to photocopy or record music for educational purpose, however, the Copyright Act of 1976 and its subsequent amendments have placed strict guidelines on all individuals, including music educators, as to the extent all media materials can be used. This law is very specific regarding legal ramifications for both individuals and school districts if copyrights are infringed upon (Woody, 1994). Another legal issue of great concern to music teachers is the use of sacred music. While the extent of religion in public schools has long been a debatable issue, musical activities have his- torically been part of many music performances. Scared music of some religious perspective is part of every culture and thus is difficult to avoid in music of any culture. Yet, the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment prohibits public schools from endorsing religion or holding religious exercises during the school day (U.S. Constitution, First Amendment, 1791). The issue is the separation of church and state, and there have been many challenges throughout American history to this issue. After reviewing several federal decisions concerning the use of scared music in public schools, Cranmore and Fossey (2014) concluded, “The performance or rehearsal of religious music in a public school setting is not in itself a violation of the Establish- ment Clause, as long as that music is used for secular purposes” (p. 34). However, because the use of scared music creates the involvement of religion in public schools and is still greatly debated, music educators should be prudent when planning programs; always be mindful of community expectations. The table below contains many common legal issues of which music educators should be aware. As a good rule of thumb, when in doubt, music educators should check with their school principal for any question of legality.  The Teaching Profession 135 Examples of Common Legal Issues Facing Music Teachers Issues Examples of Teacher Concerns 1. Copyright Fair use of music, recordings, videos, DVDs 2. Inappropriate Body contact/touching, language, Contact/Conduct outside meetings 3. Negligence Student care, unreasonable risk/carelessness, student injury 4. Liability Parent release for activities, medical attention, required approval from school board 5. Use of Volunteers & Private Information and activities found through Instructors background checks and fingerprinting 6. Religion in schools Class prayer, performance of religious music, perfor- mance during religious holidays 7. Parent Rights Parental conduct, accessibility 8. Student property on Searching student lockers or instrument cases School property 9. Finances Collecting/handling student fees or fund raising monies 10. Teacher Rights Tenure, academic freedom, personal lives, liability Historically, court decisions have had great impact on how, what, and who can teach children in American society (Serow, Castelli, & Castelli, 2000). It is safe to assume the impact on school decisions by the American legal system will continue. Because public schools attempt to educate a large segment of our diverse population, there is always a danger that someone’s rights will be forgotten or lost within the educational system. It is important professional music educators keep vigilance on the protection of their students and themselves by being aware of possible legal issues and protecting students and their own rights regarding education. The Rewards of Teaching Teaching is often negatively portrayed in our society. Why do people become teachers if the pay is so poor, the work environment so negative, and they are so often under-supported? How- ever, the rewards outnumber the challenges. Research has shown that teachers, including music teachers, find their greatest reward in the interactions with students (Lortie, 2002; Madsen, & Hancock, 2002; Scheib, 2003; Spring 2014; Waller, 1965). Teachers enjoy working with stu- dents of all ages and find great satisfaction in helping students learn (Goodlad, 1984). They feel a great sense of intrinsic satisfaction in seeing faces light up when a student finally understands something new. Many teachers report they enjoy making a difference in people’s lives. In fact, research has shown teachers gain a greater sense of satisfaction from intrinsic rewards (helping students) than extrinsic rewards (e.g., salary level)! This is especially true of music teachers, who enjoy sharing their love and enthusiasm of music with others (Raiber & Teachout, 2014). This chance to influence the musical development of younger individuals provides a great sense of achievement and satisfaction (Hamann, Daugherty, & Mills, 1987; Madsen, & Hancock, 2002; Scheib, 2003). 136 The Teaching Profession Photo Figure 13 Teaching music is a challenging, but rewarding, experience. Few people think of becoming a teacher to become financially rich. Teaching appears to be a viewed as a “calling” rather than simply a job. Many teachers, including music teachers, describe teaching as a tradition of honor or service to society (Lortie, 2002; Madsen & Kelly, 2002; Waller, 1965). The tradition of teaching makes people who seek money, prestige, or power appear some- what suspect! However, one reward of teaching is the pay structure. When individuals go into teaching they frequently know how much they will earn in salary each year due to established school district pay scales. This structure enables individuals to plan for financial goals. Addition- ally, the fact that females are paid more equally to their male counterparts is something often uncommon in the business world (Lortie, 2002; Waller, 1965). Another reward enjoyed by teachers is the relative autonomy of their classrooms (Lortie, 2002; Waller, 1965). There is nothing routine about teaching, as educators are often free to make quick decisions regarding students and activities. The best-organized lesson plans can quickly be tossed out due to an unexpected event such as a fire drill, weather event, or the anticipation of the high school prom. It has been estimated that teachers make over two hundred decisions daily regarding their instruction and class activities (Ballantine, 2001). Thus, achieving a sense of accomplishment by making decisions from which the effects can be directly observed is a reward valued by teachers. This sense further supports the “honored tradition” of teaching and providing a needed service to society. Other attractors for teaching include extended vacations, job security, and regular holidays (Lortie, 2002). Most school systems also permit great variance in teacher individualism, or the amount of involvement in school functions. Some teachers become very active in a wide variety of school activities in addition to teaching their classes, while others are content to teach their classes and attend only required extra duties or responsibilities.  The Teaching Profession 137 Finally, perhaps a unique aspect for music teachers is that they can continue to actively par- ticipate in something they love—making music. Opportunities to continue actively engaged in practicing the subject matter they teach provide many music educators with a continued con- nection to their love of performance. This can include teaching private lessons, participation in performing ensembles, or sharing the enjoyment of music with others, including their students. Many music teachers became teachers due to their love of music and desire to share this love with others. Being music teachers enables them to accomplish this desire. Thus, many music teachers are active musicians in their communities and schools, further contributing to their credibility as role models for their students. Summary Few professions in the United States have such a profound effect on society as teaching. Though not as well-funded or financially rewarding as many other professions, professional teachers are highly regarded individuals who have tremendous impact on our society. This respect and influ- ence extends to music educators, as they are frequently intertwined with their communities. Thus, teaching is a profession that is reputable to, even honored by, many in our society. Teaching requires commitment to the subject matter, as well as the diversity of interactions encountered every day. Being a professional educator can be a challenge, and harsh. For many new teachers, encountering culture shock in their first year of teaching is very common (Krueger, 2000; Madsen & Hancock, 2002). Many new teachers expect their classrooms to be like the schools they grew up in and enjoyed. They often model themselves based on the teachers who inspired them to become teachers. While this idealism is good to a point, reality demands an acceptance that students and situations change quickly and therefore are not the same as when the teachers were students. What works for teachers one year does not work the next year. Real- ity in the teacher profession requires individuals to be open and flexible, knowledgeable and aware, personable yet firm. Reality includes understanding not only subject content, but also non-instructional, even non-educational, factors affecting teachers every day. From a sociological perspective, teaching is an interaction of people from different cultures, each with different norms and folkways, including different musical values (Ballantine, 2001; Ballantine & Spade, 2012; Macionis, 1997). The socialization process should not be dictatorial, but rather a stimulating interaction of ideas leading toward the general goals of education. The interaction in a classroom illustrates the highly personalized nature of teaching. Due to the con- stant demands on a teacher’s judgments and human relation skills, the profession requires that individuals have an enormous amount of energy and enthusiasm in the classroom. Music educators are not exempt from the challenges and demands of the teaching profession. Perhaps our biggest challenge is being accepted by other education groups as contributing to the overall education of all students. Music educators must promote the educational value of music instruction while maintaining the intrinsic value of music itself. Perhaps the very nature of train- ing received by many music education majors contributes to this challenge. Music teachers are well-trained as musicians, but not necessarily as educators. We confuse the act of conducting with teaching. We often assume that because our students participate in our ensembles, they automatically learn. We confuse the performance of music with music education. We often are uncomfortable with the business side of education and unaware of many legal issues in our pro- fession. Music teachers are frequently criticized as being elitists who want to teach only those with talent and only “classical” music. Subsequently, music teachers are often thought to be out of touch with mainstream music values in our society. Thus, we have difficulty justifying what we teach and what our students learn with other educational views. The challenges for music 138 The Teaching Profession educators are the same as for all educators: remember why you entered the profession, keep the focus on students, create wonderful, beautiful music, and teach everyone from the most talented to the most challenging. Key Items Teaching Professional Alternative Certification National Board Certification American Federation of Teachers National Education Association Teach for America Master Teachers/Lead Teachers El Sistema Tenure Extended Contracts Stepladder Pay Scale Merit Pay Career Ladders Value-added Modeling Legal Issues First and Fourteenth Amendments Compulsory Education Social Media Questions for Consideration 1. How can teacher training be improved to better reflect classroom realities? 2. If music education becomes more focused on individual needs, how will this affect tradi- tional large performing ensembles? 3. What are pros and cons of having the different salary systems for teachers? How will evalu- ators with no music background accurately assess music teachers and how might this affect their salary with the merit system? 4. How might various teacher assessments affect the quality of teaching and the teaching pro- fession as a whole? 5. How can tenure affect teacher performance? 6. How flexible may the music curriculum need to be in order to reach out to every student? 7. What are examples of situations involving various legal issues that music teachers may encounter? Web Resources Professional Organizations American Bandmasters Association: http://americanbandmasters.org/ American Choral Directors Association: http://acda.org/ American School Band Directors Association: http://asbda.com/ American String Teachers Association: http://www.astaweb.com/ El Sistema: http://www.elsistemausa.org/ National Association of Schools of Music: http://nasm.arts-accredit.org/ National Band Association: https://www.nationalbandassociation.org/ National Board Certification: http://www.nbpts.org/national-board-certification National Music Foundation: http://www.musiciansnetwork.com/network/Education/Organiza- tions/National_Music_Foundation-info60571.html Teach for America: https://www.teachforamerica.org/ U.S. Department of Education: http://www.ed.gov/  The Teaching Profession 139 Social Media Digital Learning: http://toponlineuniversityreviews.com/2009/25-excellent-social-media-sites- for-teachers/ Edutopia: http://www.edutopia.org/blog/social-media-resources-educators-matt-davis Scholastic: http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/social-media-teachers Teacher Unions American Federation of Teachers: http://www.aft.org/ National Education Association: http://www.nea.org/