Medieval Times to the Age of Exploration PDF

Chapter 6 From medieval times to the Age of Exploration At the beginning of the Middle Ages, Europe was a region made up of kingdoms that had been established for only a short time. These kingdoms wanted to expand their territories to gain more political and economic power. So they waged wars in As...

Chapter 6 From medieval times to the Age of Exploration At the beginning of the Middle Ages, Europe was a region made up of kingdoms that had been established for only a short time. These kingdoms wanted to expand their territories to gain more political and economic power. So they waged wars in Asia and sent navigators to explore the Atlantic Ocean in search of new trade routes that they could dominate. Do you know what life was like for the rest of the European population during this time? **The Middle Ages** While Mayan culture reached its height in the Americas, in Europe, its inhabitants began a new historical stage called the Middle Ages. This period was a time that brought many changes in lifestyles, modes of governance, the economy, and society. The Middle Ages, which runs from the 5th to the 15th century A.D., began after the fall of the Roman empire in 476. During that time, the conditions necessary for the formation of future European countries developed. On the other hand, the Catholic Church was strengthened by joining the political power. As in the ancient cultures of America, religion was the center of all human activities during this period in Europe. The Middle Ages was such an extensive period that it is divided into the following stages: **High Middle Ages** (5th to 11th century): Germanic kingdoms grew, the Roman empire fell, and monasteries, bishops, and the pope emerged. In addition, Islam expanded and the population of Europe increased. **Late Middle Ages** (12th to 15th century): Feudalism developed and religious wars were fought. Climatic changes and deadly diseases affected the population. **Medieval economy** The European economy was based on cultivation, specifically, subsistence farming. In this system, people produced only what they needed to live on throughout the year. The variety of products was very limited and local trade was minimal. The wealthy were the ones who bought the commercial products that were available. Spices, honey, meat, textiles, and metals, among other products, were mainly consumed by the upper class. After the 11th century, the European population began to grow and, with it, agricultural production and the needs of the people. Some small kingdoms and provincial governments became stronger and began to consolidate, which caused new kingdoms to emerge, such as France and Spain. A mercantilist economic system began to establish itself in Europe. Trading coins, accumulating gold and silver, and hoarding large tracts of land became the main economic goals of European kingdoms. **Feudalism** Before the Middle Ages, wars broke out in Europe to dominate territories. This caused the power of kings to weaken. To overcome their difficulties, royalty sought the support of the nobles in exchange for giving them land or fiefs. A new social and political system called feudalism emerged. The system was based on a relationship between the nobles and the king known as vassalage. Vassalage was a verbal contract, as well as one of honor, that established mutual obligations between the lord (the king) and his vassals (the nobles). According to this contract, the feudal lord had to provide justice and protection to the vassal, in addition to giving him a fief or large tract of land. The vassals swore loyalty to the feudal lord and pledged to respect, obey, and support him in case of need. The vassals had their own army, enforced the laws, administered justice, and collected taxes from the peasants of the fief. Farmland and villages surrounded the castle of the feudal lord. The peasants farmed the land and served in the feudal lord\'s army in exchange for his protection. Vassalage was not only established between the king and the nobles. The nobles, in turn, had their own vassals or serfs, who were poor peasants seeking support and protection. **The feudal economy** The feudal system was a chain of dependencies. Each fief was sustained by the produce obtained from the land and the labor of the serfs. With part of this production, the peasants paid taxes to the feudal lord. However, sometimes the production was not abundant due to a lack of tools and more advanced farming techniques. **Knighthood** During the Middle Ages, knights were soldiers or warriors who served the king or a feudal lord. For medieval knights, serving in the army was a matter of honor and duty. Success in battle was the best way to gain wealth and recognition. When called upon, peasants also served as knights. Since places that resisted attack were sacked or robbed, these low-ranking knights and infantrymen eagerly awaited the opportunity to raid a wealthy city or castle. By sacking a city, a soldier could accumulate a great deal of wealth. **Religion in the Middle Ages** Christianity dominated European society during the Middle Ages. The Catholic Church became the only institution present in all social spaces: Government, science, art, literature, customs, and traditions. In Europe, since the 6th century, two empires coexisted: The Western Roman empire and the Eastern or Byzantine Roman empire, whose highest authority was the pope. In 1054, however, the Byzantine bishops denied the authority of the pope. Consequently, the Christian world split into two: The Greek Orthodox Church (East) and the Roman Catholic Church (West). This split is known as the Eastern Schism. **Islam** At the beginning of the 7th century, a new religion emerged: Islam. This new doctrine was based on the teachings of the prophet Muhammad. The Arab peoples had been dispersed up to that time. Like Christianity in Europe, Islam was the element that united the Arab peoples. When they unified, they formed the Islamic empire, which stretched from India to Spain. The followers of Islam are known as Muslims. Islam is a monotheistic religion, which is the belief in the one god (mono = one). Its holy book is the Quran, which means \"recitation\". This text sets out the revelations Muhammad received from the angel Gabriel and the laws governing the Muslim way of life. The god of Islam is known as Allah. Its temples are known as mosques. Muslims created a rich culture of their own, based on the knowledge they learned from conquered places. They translated, from Greek, works on medicine, physics, geography, astronomy, and mathematics. They also developed algebra and introduced Arabic numerals, which we still use today. Their architecture was exemplified in works such as the mosque in Córdoba, Spain. **The Crusades** During the 7th to 10th centuries, Islam spread considerably. After the death of Muhammad, Muslims started religious wars and took over non-Muslim lands, such as Palestine, where the city of Jerusalem is located. Throughout the Middle Ages, Jerusalem was the most important city for Christians and Muslims alike, as it is a sacred place for both religions. For Muslims, Muhammad ascended to heaven from that city. On the other hand, for Christians, Jesus Christ lived in Jerusalem, and there is the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, the site where his burial and resurrection took place. For this reason, in the 11th century, Christian armies set out for the Holy City to fight the Muslims and recover it. Thus began the Crusades, or holy wars, eight in all, which lasted for more than a hundred years. They took the name Crusades from the cross-shaped insignia that was sewn on the clothes of the Christian soldiers. Although the main objective was religious, the Crusades were also motivated by economic and political purposes. For example, they served to stimulate trade between Europe and Asia. As a consequence, the lifestyle in Europe gradually became a more urban one. Geographical knowledge was expanded on and feudalism was brought to an end. **The Modern Age** In the 14th century, Europe experienced many political, economic, and social problems. As a result of the constant wars of the 14th century, kingdoms suffered great losses, agricultural production declined, and there was not enough food for the population. Malnutrition and famine caused terrible epidemics to spread. The worst of these was the bubonic plague or Black Death, around 1348. It is estimated that about 25 million people died, about one third of the European population. **The Renaissance** In the mid-15th century, in the period of transition from the Middle Ages to the early Modern Age, a new way of thinking about humans and the universe developed in Europe. Interest in the sciences grew, in order for people to know more about themselves. This period is known as the Renaissance. The people of the Renaissance tried to revive the culture of the Greeks and Romans. New ideas about the origin of the world appeared and religion became less important than during medieval times. In its place, a movement arose that exalted the human being as the social axis or center of the world. A scientific and technical renewal flourished, beginning in the late Middle Ages. There was widespread progress in the sciences and several mechanisms useful to industry were invented, such as the printing press, the telescope, and the spring clock. **The Age of Exploration** In the Renaissance era, the products coming from Asian countries, such as China, India, and Japan, were highly appreciated in the European markets. However, these products were difficult for Europeans to obtain. This was because, in the Mediterranean Sea, the Italians dominated the trade routes, while the Turks controlled the land routes to the east. This situation caused a shortage of products such as spices, silk, cotton, rice, and sugar cane. Thus, the European kingdoms began to explore new routes that would allow direct trade with \"the Indies\", without intermediaries that could make the products more expensive. Other factors that drove the development of the Age of Exploration were inventions such as the printing press, which allowed the stories of explorer Marco Polo\'s voyages to China to be disseminated and the development of new ships, such as the naos or caravels. These were faster, lighter, and more resistant to ocean waves. Moreover, in the Christian kingdoms, there was a great desire to spread Christianity to the lands that did not know that religion. The Silk Road was a set of trade routes that stretched from Asia to Europe. It was so named because silk was one of the most commonly sold products along the way. Traders traveled the Silk Road in caravans, with pack animals such as camels and elephants. When the Turks closed the passage between Asia and Europe in 1453, Europeans lost access to the road. **Causes of European expansion** 1. **Diseases, epidemics and conflicts** caused shortages on the trade route. 2. The **Catholic Church** was interested in Christianizing other cultures. 3. **Monarchies** were interested in expanding the territories under their rule. 4. **New geographical** and navigational knowledge emerged, as well as new inventions and technologies that motivated the exploration of the planet. **Portuguese navigators** Portugal is the European country that shares the Iberian Peninsula with Spain. Its Atlantic coast is wide, which allowed the development of navigation and trade. For centuries, the Portuguese excelled as fishermen and sailors. For this reason, Portugal was the first country to initiate the expansion project. The Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) founded the School of Sagres, where cartography, the latest advances in geography, and navigation techniques were taught. The school brought together navigators, astronomers, and other experts to perfect Portuguese navigational skills. Faced with the commercial challenges of the time, the prince was interested in exploring the coasts of Africa and, in the process, finding a new route to Asia. The Portuguese were motivated by the desire to obtain gold, ivory, spices, and textiles, among other products. They also sought to acquire enslaved people. In 1487, Bartolomeu Dias\'s expeditions managed to reach the Cape of Good Hope in southern Africa. **Encountering new routes** Upon his accession to power, King Manuel I launched a new expedition to India and chose Vasco da Gama to lead it. Overcoming the strong winds and sea currents of the African Atlantic coast, in 1498, Vasco da Gama\'s expedition managed to reach the city of Calicut in southwest India. Although he lost most of his crew due to clashes with the various authorities in the region, Vasco da Gama\'s expedition **The voyages of Christopher Columbus** Spain, although it wanted to avoid a war with Portugal, did not want to abandon the idea of having an Atlantic route to Asia. Therefore, the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, accepted the proposal of an Italian navigator named Christopher Columbus. Columbus was a sailor from the School of Sagres, in Portugal, and he claimed that the shortest route to Asia was not to the east, but to the west, crossing the Atlantic Ocean. Columbus\'s project sounded risky, because the Spanish had not sailed in that direction before. Columbus had presented his idea to other monarchs, such as the king of Portugal, but none had agreed to pay for an expedition to test his theory. Finally, in 1492, he got the support of the kings of Spain. They granted him the title of admiral and viceroy of the lands to be discovered. He would also have the right to a small part of the riches he obtained. In exchange, the Spanish monarchs would keep most of the discovered lands. The agreement was made official in a document known as the Capitulations of Santa Fe, signed on April 17, 1492. With this agreement, Columbus began his first voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. **Columbus\'s first voyage** To undertake his first voyage, Christopher Columbus was provided with about one hundred sailors and three caravels: The Pinta, the Niña, and the Santa María. The sailors who accompanied Columbus on this adventure knew that they risked death; however, they longed for the wealth that was offered to them. On August 3, 1492, Columbus set sail from the ancient port of Palos de la Frontera, Spain. They sailed westward across the Atlantic Ocean. The voyage was very difficult, but on October 12, 1492, from the Pinta, they saw the coast of the island of Guanahaní, in the present-day Bahamas. Columbus named it San Salvador. However, Columbus always thought he had reached India. Next, the expedition then continued sailing south. They found the present-day island of Cuba and named it Juana in honor of the crown prince of Spain. Later on, the Pinta sailed away from the other two caravels. Columbus thought its crew had gone rogue and went after it. However, the Pinta had reached the island of Haiti, which Columbus named Hispaniola. Today, Hispaniola is made up of the Dominican Republic and Haiti. Off the coast of that island, the Santa María ran aground and sank. The sailors returned to Spain with riches, anecdotes, and samples of their findings. Among these were handicrafts of indigenous stones, items made of gold, colorful tropical birds, and ten Lucayan Indians. Given the success of the expedition, the Spanish kings sponsored three more of Christopher Columbus\'s voyages and began the conquest of what, for them, was the New World. **Columbus\'s second voyage** On September 25, 1493, Columbus set sail for the second time from Spain to the New World. This time, he set sail with more ships and a crew of 1,500 men. The purpose of this voyage was to colonize the new territory and evangelize the inhabitants of the discovered lands. To fulfill the mission, Columbus brought priests, soldiers, and government officials, among others. In addition, the crew carried seeds, animals, and tools. He charted a new route, further south, and thus reached other Caribbean islands. On November 19, he reached our island, Borikén, and named it San Juan Bautista. The following year, he reached Jamaica. Finally, on January 6, 1494, Columbus founded the first Hispanic settlement in the New World, La Isabela, in the north of today\'s Dominican Republic. **Columbus\'s last voyages** In 1498, Christopher Columbus began his third voyage. This time, he sailed along the northern coast of South America, near Venezuela. He reached the islands of Trinidad and Tobago, and Grenada. When he returned to Hispaniola, he was arrested and sent to Spain, because some of his crew complained that they had not yet received their payments. In addition, food was becoming scarce. The Catholic Monarchs released Columbus and sent him on his fourth and last voyage. For this expedition, he had four caravels and about 140 crew members. They left Seville on April 13, 1502. He sailed through the Caribbean Sea and, between Jamaica and Cuba, made landfall in the Cayman Islands. He then reached Central America. Finally, on May 20, 1506, Columbus died in Spain without understanding that the continent he had explored was not Asia. **The Vikings** Centuries before Christopher Columbus arrived in the Americas, the Vikings had already done so. They were a people of navigators and warriors. They traveled from Norway, and between the 8th and 11th centuries, they made numerous expeditions along the coasts of Europe and America. The purpose of their voyages was to plunder the villages in their path. One of the best known Viking explorers was Erik Thorvaldsson, also known as Erik the Red because of the color of his hair. He traveled west from Norway and found an island with fertile land which he named Greenland, for its \"green land\". His son, Leif Eriksson, is considered to be the first European to explore the coasts of North America. However, unlike the Spanish, the Vikings did not attempt to take possession of the American continent. **The Magellan expedition** From the voyages of Columbus onwards, many navigators wanted to find a passage linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and that would allow them to reach Asia. Convinced that the Spice Islands were located in the New World, the explorer Ferdinand Magellan offered to explore a western route around the Americas for the king of Spain. On August 10, 1519, he set sail with five ships. Magellan died in the middle of the expedition, which was completed by Juan Sebastian Elcano. The voyage was the first circumnavigation of the Earth. With this, the spherical form of the planet was demonstrated and the routes to the East were opened for Spain. Then, by the order of the European kings, hundreds of Spaniards, Portuguese, English, and French sailors sailed along the coasts of America and Africa in search of riches. Later, many explorers traveled the American continent. The English and French sailors went to the territory we now call North America. The Spanish and Portuguese explored Central and South America. **Consequences of the exploration** The Treaty of Tordesillas After reaching the American continent, Portugal feared losing control of trade with Asia. To prevent war with Spain, they reached an agreement on June 7, 1494, known as the Treaty of Tordesillas. In this, an imaginary line, or meridian, was placed from north to south that divided, between both countries, the lands that had already been disovered and those that still remained to be found. So, the lands to the east of the line belonged to Portugal and those to the west belonged to Spain. **Effects of the meeting of cultures** The dominance of oceanic exploration by Europeans during this era resulted in political, economic, and social changes. Among these consequences were the following: \> New European colonies developed as far afield as the Americas, Africa, and Asia. \> Previously, the center of commercial activities was the Mediterranean Sea. Now, maritime trade focused on the Atlantic Ocean. This caused a crisis in many European ports. \> The introduction of new products began, both in Europe and America. \> Europeans began to emigrate to the new colonies in search of riches and adventure. \> The diseases brought by the Europeans, as well as the violence and slavery, resulted in the extermination of many indigenous peoples. \> The Atlantic trade of enslaved Africans grew. \> The old maps of the world were transformed by the new discoveries. \> Different societies came together, with different customs, religious beliefs, languages, and ways of life. \> Geography developed with the creation of new maps that included descriptions of the lands that had been found. **The ancient Ocean Sea** Before Christopher Columbus united Europe and America with his historic first voyage, there was a great mystery between the two continents: A mysterious sea called the Ocean Sea. This was the name of the sea we know today as the Atlantic Ocean. At that time, one of a sailor\'s greatest fears was the terrifying, violent waters off the African coast, as well as the monsters that were believed to dwell on the other side of the horizon. Today, however, we know that the real natural hazards found in the Atlantic Ocean are the ice floes, winds, and hurricanes. The Atlantic is the second largest ocean in the world. It washes the coasts of eastern America, as well as those of West Africa and Europe. In addition, it extends from the Arctic Ocean at the North Pole to the Antarctic Ocean at the South Pole. The equator divides it into two parts: The North Atlantic and the South Atlantic. Did you know that the deepest point of the Atlantic is the Puerto Rico Trench? It could contain, almost completely, the highest mountain on Earth: Mount Everest. Scientific studies indicate that the Atlantic is the youngest of the oceans and probably did not exist 100 million years ago. It is also the most used ocean for commercial purposes and is the largest and most important body of water in both the eastern and western hemispheres.