Foundations of Psychosocial Development - Child Development

# Chapter 6: Foundations of Psychosocial Development ## Although babies share common patterns of development, each, from the start, shows a distinct personality. ## Personality The relatively consistent blend of emotions, temperament, thought, and behavior that makes each person unique. ## Table...

# Chapter 6: Foundations of Psychosocial Development ## Although babies share common patterns of development, each, from the start, shows a distinct personality. ## Personality The relatively consistent blend of emotions, temperament, thought, and behavior that makes each person unique. ## Table 1. Highlights of Infants' and Toddlers' Psychosocial Development, Birth to 36 Months | Approximate Age, Months | Characteristics | |---|---| | 0-3 | Infants are open to stimulation. They begin to show interest and curiosity, and they smile readily at people. | | 3-6 | Infants can anticipate what is about to happen and experience disappointment when it does not. They show this by becoming angry or acting warily. They smile, coo, and laugh often. This is a time of social awakening and early reciprocal exchanges between the baby and the caregiver. | | 6-9 | Infants play social games and try to get responses from people. They talk to, touch, and cajole other babies to get them to respond. They express more differentiated emotions, showing joy, fear, anger, and surprise. | | 9-12 | Infants are intensely preoccupied with their principal caregiver, may become afraid of strangers, and act subdued in new situations. By 1 year, they communicate emotions more clearly, showing moods, ambivalence, and gradations of feeling. | | 12-18 | Toddlers explore their environment, using the people they are most attached to as a secure base. As they master the environment, they become more confident and more eager to assert themselves. | | 18-36 | Toddlers sometimes become anxious because they now realize how much they are separating from their caregivers. They work out their awareness of their limitations in fantasy and in play and by identifying with adults. | _Source: Adapted from Sroufe, 1979._ ## Emotions Emotions such as fear are subjective reactions to experience that are associated with physiological and behavioral changes. ## First Signs of Emotion ## Crying The primary way in which infants communicate their needs and is considered to be an honest signal of need. ## Smiling and Laughing The earliest faint smiles happen soon after birth, driven by subcortical nervous system activity. These involuntary smiles often appear during REM sleep. ## Social Smiling and Anticipatory Smiling - Beginning in the 2nd month, newborn infants gaze at their parents and smile at them, signaling positive participation in the relationship. - Infant smiles at an object and then gazes at an adult while still smiling. ## When do emotions appear? Emotional development is an orderly process; complex emotions unfold from simpler ones. ## Self-Conscious Emotions Emotions, such as embarrassment, empathy, and envy, that depend on self-awareness. ## Self-Awareness Realization that one's existence and functioning are separate from those of other people and things. ## Self-Evaluative Emotions Emotions, such as pride, shame, and guilt, that depend on both self-awareness and knowledge of socially accepted standards of behavior. ## Altruistic Helping and Empathy - Activity intended to help another person with no expectation of reward. - Ability to put oneself in another person's place and feel what the other person feels. ## Mirror Neurons Research in neurobiology has identified special brain cells called mirror neurons, which may underlie empathy and altruism. Neurons that fire when a person does something or observes someone else doing the same thing. ## Collaborative Activities and Cultural Transmission Between 9 and 12 months, infants begin collaborating with caregivers, like passing socks during dressing. This increases in the 2nd year as communication improves. Unlike chimpanzees, who skip unnecessary steps, children over-imitate adults, which may explain our ability to create cultural artifacts and institutions. ## Temperament Characteristic disposition or style of approaching and reacting to situations. ## Table 2. Three Temperamental Patterns (according to the New York Longitudinal Study) | | "Easy" Child | "Difficult" Child | "Slow-to-Warm-Up" Child | |---|---|---|---| | **Moods** | Has moods of mild to moderate intensity, usually positive. | Displays intense and frequently negative moods; cries often and loudly; also laughs loudly.| Has mildly intense reactions, both positive and negative. | | **Novelty and change** | Responds well to novelty and change. | Responds poorly to novelty and change. | Responds slowly to novelty and change. | | **Sleep and feeding** | Quickly develops regular sleep and feeding schedules. | Sleeps and eats irregularly. | Sleeps and eats more regularly than the difficult child, less regularly than the easy child. | | **New foods** | Takes to new foods easily. | Accepts new foods slowly. | Shows mildly negative initial response to new stimuli (a first encounter with a new food, person, place, or situation). | | **Strangers** | Smiles at strangers. | Is suspicious of strangers. | | | **New Situations** | Adapts easily to new situations. | Adapts slowly to new situations. | | | **Frustration** | Accepts most frustrations with little fuss. | Reacts to frustration with tantrums. | | | **New routines** | Adapts quickly to new routines and rules of new games. | Adjusts slowly to new routines. | Gradually develops liking for new stimuli after repeated, unpressured exposures. | _Source: Adapted from Thomas and Chess, 1984. Reprinted with permission from the American Journal of Psychiatry 141, 1984, pp. 1-9. Copyright © 1984 by the American Psychiatric Association._ ## Goodness of Fit Appropriateness of environmental demands and constraints to a child's temperament. ## Behavioral Inhibition Has something to do with how boldly or cautiously a child approaches unfamiliar objects and situations ## Early Social Experiences: The Family It is important to recognize the wide diversity in family systems, even within the United States, where the number of nontraditional families, such as those headed by single parents and gay and lesbian couples, has increased in recent years. ## The Mother's Role - Based on Harlow's Experiments, *Rhesus* monkeys preferred clinging to terry cloth surrogates over wire ones, even if fed by the wire surrogates, showing the importance of comfort over just food. - Monkeys raised by cloth surrogates explored more in unfamiliar rooms, but none grew up normally or could nurture their offspring. - These experiments challenged previous theories like Freud's, showing that mothering involves more than feeding, emphasizing the need for close bodily contact and warm, responsive care. ## The Father's Role - The father's role varies across cultures and can be taken on by others, such as uncles or grandfathers. The role's meaning has changed significantly in many parts of the world. - In Inner Mongolia, fathers traditionally handle economic support and discipline, while mothers nurture. In contrast, *Aka* fathers in central Africa provide direct infant care as part of their family role. - In the U.S., fathers' involvement in caregiving has increased with more mothers working and evolving concepts of fatherhood, positively impacting children's development. ## Developing Issues in Infancy How does a dependent newborn with limited emotions and physical needs develop into a child with complex feelings and self-control? ## Gender Identifying as male or female affects how people look, how they move their bodies, and how they work, dress, and play. It influences what they think about themselves and what others think of them. All these characteristics — and more — are included in the word gender: what it means to be male or female. ## Gender Differences in Infants and Toddlers - Measurable gender differences in infants and toddlers are minimal, but early preferences for sex-typed toys and behaviors suggest some innate tendencies influenced by biology. - These preferences emerge early and are observed even in nonhuman primates, indicating a combination of innate and social factors. ## Parental Influences on Gender Differences - Parents generally use similar parenting styles with boys and girls, but they still unconsciously reinforce gender stereotypes through their actions and responses. - Fathers tend to promote gender-typing more than mothers, engaging in rougher play with sons and being more sensitive with daughters, while mothers talk more supportively to daughters. These behaviors are influenced by both cultural norms and biological factors. ## Developing Issues in Infancy How does a dependent newborn with limited emotions and physical needs develop into a child with complex feelings and self-control? ## Developing Trust Human babies rely on others for food, protection, and nurturance for an extended period. In Erikson's Theory, the first stage of psychosocial development focuses on forming a sense of trust vs. mistrust. ## Trust vs. Mistrust - Successful development leads to a sense of reliability in people and objects, making the child feel safe and loved. - Failure results in feelings that the world is unfriendly and unpredictable, making it difficult to form quality relationships. ## Developing Attachments ## Attachment A reciprocal, enduring emotional tie between an infant and a caregiver, essential for the baby's psychosocial and physical needs. Attachments are biologically predisposed and promote a baby's survival by ensuring their needs are met. ## The Strange Situation - A classic, laboratory-based technique designed to assess attachment patterns between an infant and an adult. - Typically, the adult is the mother (though other adults have taken part as well), and the infant is 10 to 24 months old. ## Secure Attachment - Babies are flexible and resilient in the face of stress. - May cry when caregiver leaves, but quickly comforted upon their return. - Prefer caregiver during reunion, often smiling or approaching them. ## Avoidant Attachment - Babies seem unaffected by caregiver leaving or returning. - Continue to play and interact with the stranger. - Ignore or reject the caregiver upon their return. ## Ambivalent Attachment - Babies are anxious before the caregiver leaves and become extremely upset when they do. - Upon return, babies remain upset, showing mixed behaviors (proximity-seeking and anger). - Difficult to soothe, often resisting comfort. ## Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment - Identified by Main & Solomon (1986). - Babies lack a cohesive strategy to handle stress during the Strange Situation. - Exhibit contradictory, repetitive, or misdirected behaviors (e.g., seeking closeness to the stranger, showing fear when the caregiver returns). - Appear confused and afraid. - Occurs in at least 10% of infants. - Most common in babies with mothers who are insensitive, intrusive, abusive, or frightening. - More likely in the presence of multiple risk factors (e.g., maternal insensitivity, marital discord, parenting stress). - A strong predictor of later behavioral and adjustment problems. ## Emotional Communication with Caregivers: Mutual Regulation ## Mutual Regulation - The ability of both infant and caregiver to respond sensitively to each other's emotional states. - Infant's Role: Babies actively participate by sending behavioral signals, like smiles, which influence caregiver behavior. ## Developmental Issues in Toddlerhood About halfway between their 1st and 2nd birthdays, babies become toddlers. Here are three psychological issues that toddlers - and their caregivers - have to deal with: - The Emerging Sense of Self - The Growth of Autonomy or self-determination; - Socialization or internalization of behavioral standards. ## The Emerging Sense of Self ## The Emerging Sense of Self - Self-concept is our image of ourselves - our total picture of our abilities and traits. It describes what we know and feel about ourselves and guides our actions (Harter, 1996). - Sense of self; descriptive and evaluative mental picture of one's abilities and traits. ## The Emerging Sense of Self - By at least 3 months of age, infants pay attention to their mirror image; - 4- to 9-month-olds show more interest in images of others than of themselves. - This early perceptual discrimination may be the foundation of the conceptual self-awareness that develops between 15 and 18 months. ## The Emerging Sense of Self - Between 4 and 10 months, when infants learn to reach, grasp, and make things happen, they experience a sense of personal agency, the realization that they can control external events. - Infants also develop self-coherence, the sense of being a physical whole with boundaries separate from the rest of the world. ## The Emerging Sense of Self - Conscious knowledge of the self as a distinct, identifiable being — builds on this dawning of perceptual distinction between self and others. - Self-awareness can be tested by studying whether an infant recognizes his or her own image. - A sign of self-recognition is using first-person pronouns, such as *me* and *mine*, usually at 20 to 24 months. ## Development of Autonomy or Self-Determination ## Development of Autonomy - Erikson (1950) identified the period from about 18 months to 3 years as the second stage in personality development. - This is marked by a shift from external control to self-control. - The virtue that emerges during this stage is *will*. - Toddlers need adults to set appropriate limits, and shame and doubt help them recognize the need for those limits. ## Moral Development: Socialization and Internalization ## Moral Development: Socialization and Internalization - Is the process by which children develop habits, skills, values, and motives that make them responsible, productive members of society. - During socialization, the process by which children accept societal standards of conduct as their own. ## Moral Development: Socialization and Internalization Children who are successfully socialized no longer obey rules or commands merely to get rewards or avoid punishment; rather, They obey societal or parental dictates, not because they are afraid of getting in trouble but because they believe them to be right and true. ## Moral Development: Socialization and Internalization - Control of one's behavior to conform to a caregiver's demands or expectations of her, even when the caregiver is not present. - Self-regulation is the foundation of socialization, and it links all domains of development—physical, cognitive, emotional, and social. ## Moral Development: Socialization and Internalization - Kochanska's term for wholehearted obedience of a parent's orders without reminders or lapses. - Young children cooperate with parental dictates because they know they are supposed to. - The eventual goal is to develop *conscience* - both the ability to refrain from certain acts as well as to feel emotional discomfort if they fail to do so. ## Moral Development: Socialization and Internalization - Kochanska's term for obedience of a parent's orders only in the presence of signs of ongoing parental control. They needed the extra assistance provided by their parents' reminders and prompts to complete the task. ## Moral Development: Socialization and Internalization - Kochanska's term for eager willingness to cooperate harmoniously with a parent in daily interactions, including routines, chores, hygiene, and play. ## Relationships with Other Children - Siblings - Peers ## Siblings - Sibling relationships begin with the birth of a new baby and continue to develop positively and negatively throughout childhood. - The earliest, most frequent, and most intense disputes among siblings are over property rights or access to the mother. - Affection, interest, companionship, and influence are also prevalent in sibling relationships. - Generally, same-sex siblings, particularly girls, are closer and play together more peaceably than boy-girl pairs. ## Peers - Toddlers show interest in people outside the home, particularly people their size. - Toddlers learn by imitating one another. Games help toddlers connect with other children and pave the way for more complex games during the preschool years. - Sociability is also influenced by experience; babies who spend time with other babies, as in child care, become sociable earlier than those who spend almost all their time at home. ## Q&A Ask questions, feedback, and suggestions from the audience. ## Thank You Thank the audience and remind them to contact you if they have questions. ## Contact Details - WEBSITE reallygreatsite.com - EMAIL [email protected] - SOCIAL MEDIA @reallygreatsite - MOBILE NUMBER +123-456-7890 ## Resource Page Use these design resources in your Canva Presentation. Happy designing! Delete or hide this page before presenting. ## Resource Page Find the magic and fun in presenting with Canva Presentations. Press the following keys while in Present mode! Delete or hide this page before presenting. - B for blur - C for confetti - D for a drumroll - M for mic drop - O for bubbles - Q for quiet - U for unveil - Any number from 0-9 for a timer ## Resource Page Is presenting live not your thing? No worries! You can record your Canva Presentation so your audience can watch at their own pace. Remember to delete or hide this page before presenting. - Click the Share button on the top right corner of your screen and select 'Present and Record.' - Click 'Go to the recording studio,' where you can choose the video and audio source for your video presentation. - Feel free to choose the 'No camera' option and record your voice only. - Start recording, and press pause in between takes if you have to. - Once you're done, download your Canva Presentation in MP4 file format or get a link to your Talking Presentation and share it with others. - You can also record a video inside the editor! Go to 'Uploads' and click on 'Record yourself'. ## Children working parents - In general, mothers' workforce participation during a child's first three years seem to have a little impact on development, but cognitive development may suffer when a mother works 30 hrs or more hours a week by her child's nine a month. - Substitute child care varies in quality the most important on every quality of care is the caregiver. - Although quality, quantity, stability, and type of care influence psychosocial and cognitive development, the influence of family characteristics seems greater overall. ## Effects of maternal employment Labor force participation by mothers of children of all age has increased dramatically in the past four decades. In 1975, fewer than half of all mothers were working or looking for work. In 2017, more than half (58.5 percent) of mothers of infants in their 1st year of life and 65.1 percent of women with children under age 6 were in the labor force (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018; Figure 2). ## Figure 2 | Age of youngest child | 1975 | 2013 | |---|---|---| | 6 to 17 | 55 | 74.7 | | Under 6 years | 45 | 63.9 | | Under 3 years | 34 | 61.1 | | Under 1 year | 31 | 57.3 | *"Married mothers"_ ## Early Child Care The impact of early child care depends on a variety of factors, including the child's temperament and gender, the quality of care, and characteristics of the caregiver. ## Maltreatment: Abuse and Neglect ## Physical Abuse action taken deliberately to another person, involving potential bodily injury. ## Neglect Failure to need dependent's basic needs. ## Sexual abuse physically or psychologically harmful sexual activity or any sexual activity involving a child and older person. ## Emotional Maltreatment rejection, terrorization, isolation, exploitation, degradation, ridicule, or failure to provide emotional support, love and affection; or other action or inaction that may cause behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or mental disorders. ## Nonorganic failure to thrive slowed or arrested physical growth with no known medical cause, accompanied by poor developmental and emotional functioning. ## Shaken baby syndrome form of maltreatment in which shaking an infant or toddler can cause brain damage, paralysis, and death. ## Contributing Factors: An Ecological View - Characteristics of Abusive and Neglectful Parents and Families - Cultural Influences ## Thank You!