Chapter 6, 7, 8 (1) PDF

Chapter 6: New Directions in Thought and Culture in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries Overview Change in scientific view of the universe, which led to rethinking of moral and religious matters Natural philosophy challenged Schol...

Chapter 6: New Directions in Thought and Culture in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries Overview Change in scientific view of the universe, which led to rethinking of moral and religious matters Natural philosophy challenged Scholasticism and other popular medieval beliefs More superstition and persecution came with the changes, more fear and anxiety ○ Led to witch hunts 6.1 The Scientific Revolution I. What was it? A. A new view of the universe B. Not a rapid revolution C. Involved no more than a few hundred people studying in crude laboratories D. Scientists relied on help of artisans and craftsmen E. Led to new social institutions F. Science had to gain cultural authority, and it did in the Western world G. Astronomy had a particularly big impact II. 6.1.1 Nicolaus Copernicus Rejects and Earth-Centered Universe A. On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres 1. Criticisms earth centered universe 2. Help papacy reform calendar to recalculate Easter B. Was a Polish priest C. The Ptolemaic System 1. Geocentrism a) From Aristotle, the belief that above the earth was a series of concentric spheres and the other regions held the realm of God, so the Earth had to be the center because of its heaviness 2. Ptolemaic model had problems D. Copernicus’ Universe 1. In On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, he challenged Ptolemaic system 2. Adapted much of it to a heliocentric model (sun-centered)  3. For at least a century, the Copernican system was only embraced by a minority of natural philosophers III. 6.1.2 Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler Make New Scientific Observations A. Tycho Brahe 1. Make scientific instruments to see the planets better and from that got vast data B. Johannes Kepler 1. After Brahe died, took the data 2. Was a Copernican 3. Combined Copernicus’s concept with Brahe’s data and published in The New Astronomy IV. 6.1.3 Galileo Galilei Argues for a Universe of Mathematical Laws A. Galileo Galilei turned a telescope (new invention) to the heavens 1. Proved them to be more complex 2. His discoveries were complex, and he knew few would understand through Ptolemaic model a) Starry Messenger and Letters on Sunspots argued that his findings required a Copernican interpretation B. Galileo’s career shows that scientific discovery was more than presenting arguments and evidence C. Was dependent on princely patronage, so named the moons of Jupiter after Medicis D. Most prominent advocate of Copernicanism E. Argued mathematics over Scholasticism V. 6.1.4 Isaac Newton Discovers the Laws of Gravitation A. The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy 1. Principia Mathematica a) Newton supported Galileo’s ideas b) Reasoned that planets and objects moved through mutual attraction (gravity) and that was how planets moved B. Believed in empiricism 1. One must observe something before attempting to explain it 6.2 Philosophy Responds to Changing Science - Revolution led to reexamination of Western philosophy 6.2.1 Nature as Mechanism I. Mechanism A. Explained the world in terms of the language of machinery 1. Clock B. Philosophy was now mathematics  6.2.2 Francis Bacon: The Empirical Method I. Francis Bacon A. Lawyer, authors, etc B. Father of empiricism and experimentation - though not earned terms 1. More accurately helped set an intellectual tone and create a climate conducive to scientific work C. The Advancement of Learning, Novum Organum, The New Atlantis 1. Attacked scholastic beliefs, believed it was too focused on tradition and knowledge of ancients instead of looking for new knowledge of nature D. Knowledge of nature should be used to improve the human condition E. Induction from empirical evidence F. Believed that the pursuit of knowledge would increase power of government and monarchies G. Helped create connection between government and scientific realm 6.2.3 René Descartes: The Method of Rational Deduction I. René Descartes A. Mathematician B. Analytic geometry C. Scientific method by deduction 1. From general principle to specific facts D. Discourse of Method 1. Rejected Scholasticism E. Deduced the existence of God F. Human reason could fully comprehend the world 1. Divided things between thinking things and things occupying space a) Separated between mind and body to disconnect nonmaterial matters from science G. Scientific induction 1. Overtook descartes’ deduction 2. Generalizations from details 6.2.4 Thomas Hobbes: Apologist for Absolute Government I. Thomas Hobbes, a political philosopher II. Leviathan A. Goal was to justify a strong central political authority B. Human reasoning achieved no deeper reality or wisdom than physical sensations C. Humans existed only to meet needs of daily life, not for a divine purpose D. Pessimistic view of human nature, selfishness was natural and inevitable E. Political contract to set aside personal rights for protection F. Argued absolute authority  G. Had much opposition, especially religious critique 6.2.5 John Locke: Defender of Moderate Liberty and Toleration I. Criticism of absolutism II. Natural rights III. Positive view of human nature IV. Social contract V. Government of limited authority VI. Consent of governed and trust VII. Some religious toleration VIII. Reason and revelation were compatible 6.3 The New Institutions of Expanding Natural Knowledge - Idea that there was new knowledge to be discovered 6.3.1 The New Knowledge and Its Consequences I. Social implications of natural knowledge II. Associated with opposed Scholasticism and Aritstotelianism III. Many new thinkers criticized the universities A. Descartes: Discourse on Method B. Hobbes: Leviathan C. Locke IV. Incorporation of science into universities, who also employed scientists 6.3.2 The New Scientific Institutions and Societies I. Institutions of sharing A. Royal Society of London B. Tried to separate natural philosophy from religious and political conflicts II. Science became distinct into social life III. Led to Enlightenment  6.4 Women in the World of the Scientific Revolution I. QUeen Christina of Sweden brought Descartes to stockholm II. Women not admitted as members of scientific societies III. Women largely excluded from science 6.4.1 Noblewomen: Margaret Cavendish I. Contributed to scientific literature II. Married to Duke of Newcastle III. Criticized Royal Society of London A. Only women of the century to be allowed in a meeting 6.4.2 Women Artisans I. Noblewomen had little freedom to study science, but artisan women had a little more II. Study of astronomy happened in these shops (in Germany) and women assisted III. Maria Cunitz: published book on astronomy 6.4.3 Women’s Contributions to Science I. Margaret Cavendish published a book to introduce women to science II. Writings for female audiences III. Women still largely barred from science and medicine 6.5 The New Science and Religious Faith I. Science was seen as a threat to religion by some A. Theories and discoveries didn’t align with biblical statements about heaven B. Who would decide conflicts between religion and science C. Materialistic meaning over spiritual II. Most natural philosophers saw their work as supportive of religion by contributuing to knowledge of the divine 6.5.1 The Case of Galileo I. Condemnation of Galileo by Roman Catholic authorities A. Religion smothering science B. Also condemned Copernicanism II. Stemmed from tensions with Protestants and their individual interpretation of the Bible III. Galileo talked about how Scripture should be interpreted to accommodate the new science IV. 1616, Galileo spoke on his views in Rome openly, but Roman Catholic Inquisition started to censure him and prohibited his book V. Reached an agreement with Roman Catholic authorities A. Couldn’t advocate Copernican astronomy, but could suggest it could be true B. Until Pope Urban VIII gave Galileo permission to resume 1. Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems a) Defended Copernicanism b) The voice of Pope Urban in the book, favoring old system was portrayed as slow, so he ordered an investigation (1) Galileo placed under house arrest 6.5.2 Blaise Pascal: Reason and Faith I. Blaise Pascal: French mathematician and physical scientist II. Considered Jesuits a distortion of Christian teachings III. Rejected skeptics because they were atheists or not religious or deists IV. Pensées, his writing A. Believed that in religious only reasons of the heart could prevail B. Religion not the domain of reason and science C. Believed humans to be corrupt and unworthy of God D. It is better to believe God exists and to stake everything on his promised mercy than to not do so 1. God improved life psychologically and disciplined it morally V. Strengthen traditional religious belief 6.5.3 The English Approach to Science and Religion I. Francis Bacon argued that there were two books of divine revelation: the Bible and nature A. Both share the same author and therefore must be compatible and mutually supportive II. Physico-theology A. Deducing of religious conclusions from nature B. Allowed new physics and astronomy to spread rapidly as Europeans tired from wars on religion III. By late 17th century, natural philosophy was more accepted into society as fulfillment of God’s plan: human beings were meant to improve the world A. Religious justification for the coming economic improvement  6.6 Continuing Superstition 6.6.1 Witch Hunts and Panic I. Dark side of early modern thought and culture II. Witches said to attend mass meetings, sabbats III. Cannibalism and orgies A. Especially cannibalism of small Christian children 6.6.2 Village Origins I. Belief in witches came from elite culture 6.6.3 Influence of the Clergy I. Popular belief in magical power was foundation of hunts II. Christian theologians also contributed III. Simple folk saw Christian priests as magic too A. But their magic was from God, the witches magic was from the devil IV. Church allied with princes who wanted to extend authority over towns V. Witch trials was a way the church and state realized overlapping goals A. Demonstration of absolute spiritual and political authority 6.6.4 Who Were the Witches? I. Women II. Single III. Over 40 IV. Widows V. Midwives VI. Healers/Herbalists 6.6.5 End of the Witch Hunts I. More scientific point of view A. Mind and matter viewed as separate 1. Curses were just words II. Got too out of hand, threatened anarchy 6.7 Baroque Art I. Naturalistic rather than idealized  A. Showed interest in natural knowledge B. Michelangelo Caravaggio II. Sharp contrasts III. Dramatic scenes IV. Biblical scenes V. Became associated with Roman Catholicism and absolutist politics VI. Gian Lorenzo Bernini’s work in St. Peter’s Basilica VII. Peter Paul Rubens A. Employed by Charles I of England VIII. Louis XIV palace at Versailles A. Hall of Mirrors Chapter Summary Sun replaced earth as center of solar system and solar system one of many systems in the universe Changes in authority of the church and Scripture Political thought less concerned with religious issues Growing confidence in human ability to shape the world and their own lives Was accompanied by anxiety, shown in witch hunts Chapter 7: Society and Economy Under the Old Regime in the Eighteenth Century 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8 Old Regime in France during French Revolution ○ Life and institutions of pre revolutionary Europe ○ Outside of Great Britain, meant the rule of theoretically absolute monarchies ○ Scarcity of food and predominance of agriculture ○ Slow transport ○ Low level of iron production ○ Unsophisticated financial institutions ○ Socially, men and women saw themselves not as individuals but members of distinct corporate bodies ○ Tradition, hierarchy, and corporate feeling ○ Early stages of Industrial Revolutions  7.1 Major Features of Life in the Old Regime I. Maintenance of Tradition A. Many wanted restoration of traditional rights, not Enlightenment II. Hierarchy and Privilege A. Did not have individual rights, but the rights granted to particular communities 7.2 The Aristocracy I. Nobility was 1-5%, but held most power II. Varieties of Aristocratic Privilege A. Birth and legal privilege not earned B. British nobility 1. Smallest, wealthiest and best defined 2. Eldest son inherited the title (peerage) 3. Dominated society and politics C. French nobility 1. Less clear 2. Divided between those who held office and those who didn’t D. Eastern European Nobilities 1. More repressive III. Aristocratic Resurgence A. Nobility’s reaction to threat to their position and privileges B. Tried to make it more difficult to become a noble C. Pushed to reserve appointments to power D. Fought for more exemptions from taxation 7.3 The Land and Its Tillers I. Peasants and serfs tied to land II. Many were poor III. Peasants and Serfs A. Social dependency B. The class that owned most of the land also controlled the local government and courts IV. Obligations of Peasants A. Power of landlord increased from Europe west to east 1. French peasants had some land, few serfs 2. Had feudal duties: banalités V. Treatment A. Worst in Russia 1. Little to no rights, similar to slavery  B. Southeastern Europe, Ottoman Empire, peasants were free but landlords exerted authority VI. Rebellions A. Catherine the Great confirmed authority of the nobles over their serfs in exchange for landowners’ political cooperation (Russia) B. Peasant unrest 1. Culminated in Pugachev’s Rebellion a) Pugachev promises serfs land and freedom b) Brutally suppressed 2. England rural riots 3. Western Europe few if any revolts 7.5 The Revolution in Agriculture I. Factors that led to the Agricultural Revolution A. Food supply was uncertain, especially further east B. Grain prices when up from poor harvests 1. Many families fell back on poor relief from government or church C. Bread prices rose and put pressure on poor D. Prices rose faster than wages, hurt poor peasants but benefitted landowners and wealthier peasants who could sell surplus E. Landlords in Western Europe began innovations (Agricultural Revolution) as they saw opportunity to improve incomes from rising grain prices II. New crops and new methods A. Began in Low Countries in need of new cultivation techniques B. Experimented with new crops: clover and turnips C. English landlords D. Some became famous 1. Jethro Tull a) Was willing to experiment on himself to finance experiments of others b) Was often wrong c) Use of iron plows to turn the earth more deeply and planting with a seat drill both revolutionary (1) Allowed land to be cultivated for longer 2. Charles”Turnip” Townsend a) Cultivate sandy soil with fertilizers b) Crop rotations (1) Also meant more livestock could be raised 3. Robert Bakewell a) New methods of animal breeding for more milk and meat E. Enclosure replaces open-field 1. Open-field  a) Small farmers each owned/rented an assortment of unconnected strips (1) Left large portions of land fallow b) Whole community decided what was planted c) Discouraged improvement and favored poorer farmers d) Steady but not growing food supply 2. Enclosures a) Landlords consolidated or enclosed lands to increase produced (1) Especially as wheat prices rose b) Fencing of common lands and transformation of strips into block fields (1) Riots ensued c) Land easily enclosed by landlords d) Disrupted small traditional communities e) Population increased in some places f) New soil came into production 3. Commercialization of agriculture a) Spread from Britain across Europe b) Trained relationship between government and governed c) Landlords had previously looked after welfare of lowers, not any more F. Limited improvements in Eastern Europe 1. Agricultural revolution was mainly west of Elbe River 2. Their method to increase production was plow untilled lands 3. Less successful and ambitious 4. Introduction of maize and potato G. Expansion of population 1. Began in second quarter of the 18th century and population increased steadily 2. Food prices rose with need to feed pop., and spurred agricultural revolution 3. Also spurred industrial revolution 4. Changes in food supply may have contributed a) Potato cultivation (1) Major 5. With pop boom was also social and political discontent 7.6 The Industrial Revolution of the 18th Century I. Began in Britain II. Industrialization of the economy in second half of 18th III. Sustained economic growth IV. Demand for new skills, discipline, and larger labor force V. Raised standard of living and overcame the poverty  VI. A revolution in Consumption A. Increased supply of consumer goods B. More disposable income C. New methods of marketing VII. Industrial Leadership of Great Britain A. Great Britain home of industrial revolution B. Led consumer revolution C. Center of fashion D. Newspapers thrived and ads increased consumerism E. Also from demand of North American colonies F. Stable political structure and secure property G. British society was finally mobile VIII. New Methods of Textile Production A. Textile production led the industrial revolution B. Earliest started in countryside not cities C. Domestic system of textile production 1. Urban textile merchants brough fibers to homes of peasants to spin into thread and other peasants to weave D. Machines created to meet textile demand 1. Spinning jenny 2. Water frame IX. Social effects were not immediate X. Steam engine allowed combination of urbanization and industrialization A. Steady and unlimited source of power B. Driven by burning coal C. Portable source of industrial power D. Revolutionized transportation as well XI. Iron Production A. Coke B. British began to produce tons of iron C. Lowered the cost of steam engines XII. Impact of Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions on Working Women A. Diminished the importance and role of women in the workforce B. Commercialization and mechanization eroded the traditional roles C. Machinery operated by men took women’s roles D. Women seen as opponents of agricultural improvement E. Same happened with spinning, one of women’s most traditional incomes F. Working women had to take on lower paying jobs, and many in turn had to become prostitutes or engage in criminal activity, their reputations suffering G. Women’s work associated with the home  7.7 The Growth of Cities I. Problems from growth of cities II. Patterns of Pre Industrial Urbanization A. Growth of towns in 18th cent B. London, Paris, Berlin, Warsaw, St. Petersburg III. Less than 20% in cities IV. Growth of Capital and Ports A. Capitals and ports grew most V. Putting out system moved production from medieval cities to the countryside (cheaper labor) VI. Emergence of new cities and growth of small towns A. Population increase B. Prosperity of agriculture, nearby market towns VII. Urban Classes A. Social divisions B. Urban rich separate from urban poor C. Striking beauty of wealthy homes and filth of the streets D. Poverty not just an urban problem, worse in countryside E. The bad life for the poor also came from consumption of liquor in the midcentury F. Public executions G. Public floggings H. Upper class 1. Controlled political and economic affairs 2. Self-appointed to govern city I. Middle Class 1. Prosperous 2. Diverse and divided 3. Less wealthy middle class often resented wealthier middle class 4. Cities and towns 5. Trade and commerce benefitted them 6. Enabled rapid social mobility and change in lifestyle 7. Economically aggressive and socially ambitious 8. Supported reform and change and economic growth 9. Main target of consumerism 10. Saw lower as violent J. Artizans 1. Largest group in any city 2. Vulnerable economic situation 3. Conservative VIII. The Urban Riot A. Conservative outlook from artisans meant they favored traditional social and economic justice B. Showed through riots  C. Price of bread specifically 1. Restrained greed of merchants 2. Old Regime style riot, not irrational D. London Protestant mobs compelled government to withdraw act to legalize Jewish naturalization E. Violence towards property not people F. Oftentimes the higher classes would encourage riots as a political tool 7.8 Jewish Population: the Age of the Ghetto I. Suppression of jews led to the formation of ghettos II. Famous for intellectual life and financial institutions in Western Europe, most lived in eastern Europe III. Ghettos, primarily Jewish villages in the countryside IV. Self governing for awhile V. Discriminatory legislation VI. Except England VII. Age of the ghetto A. Began with jewish expulsion from Spain VIII. Jews in society A. 17th cent, helped finance wars of major rulers 1. Samuel Oppenheimer a) Helped Habsburgs finance 2. Loans often not repaid B. Tended to marry among themselves C. Many in poverty D. Little rights E. End of Old Regime changed lives of European Jews Review I. Brink of a new era II. Commercial spirit A. Individuals B. Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions C. More consumption III. Expansion of population A. More labor, energy and minds B. Cities had to accommodate C. Guilds had to confront larger labor force IV. Social hierarchy remained  V. Middle class grew wealthier from trade and commerce VI. Monarchs interfered with noble privileges VII. Chapter 8: The Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars, and Colonial Rebellion 8.5 Mid-Eighteenth-Century Wars I. Involved continental and global conflicts A. Chattel slavery of plantation economies B. Statesmen believed warfare could further national interests C. Little interest in peace D. Overseas empires and central and eastern Europe II. War of Jenkins’s Ear A. West Indies trade rivalry and smuggling 1. Spain took it seriously B. Spaniards cut off the ear of English captain Jenkins C. Late 1739, Britain went to war with Spain 1. First of a series of European wars until 1815 III. War of Austrian Succession A. Frederick II, new King of Prussia, seized Austrian province in Germany 1. Maria Theresa, Habsburg ruler 2. Upset balance of power B. Maria Theresa preserved the Habsburg Empire 1. Unable to regain Silesia still 2. Won loyalty and support from subjects a) Gave new privileges to nobility 3. Promised Hungarian nobility local autonomy C. France draws Great Britain into the war 1. Austrian SUccession and British-Spanish commercial conflict wouldn’t been separate, but France united them 2. France supported Prussia against Austria 3. Brought Great Britain in 4. War ended in stalemate in 1748 a) Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1) Prussia retained Silesia  (2) Spain renewed the privilege granted Britain in the Treaty of Utrecht to import slaves into the Spanish colonies IV. Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 A. Treaty brought peace, but France and GB continued to struggle in Ohio Riber Valley (NE) 1. French and Indian War 2. Dramatic shift of alliances a) Britain and Prussia signed COnvention of Westminster (1) Defensive alliance that prevented entry of foreign troops into German states (2) Britain, an ally of Austria, joined forces with Austria’s enemy (3) Troubled Maria Theresa but her foreign minister was happy af (a) Prince Wenzel Anton Kaunitz b) France and Austria signed a defensive alliance V. Seven Years’ War A. Frederick the Great opens hostilities 1. Began war by invading Saxony, Germany a) Created a destructive alliance (1) France and Austria in order to end Prussia, joined by Sweden, Russia, small German states b) Prussia was saved by British financial aid and the empress of russia died and her successor loved Fred and made peace B. Treaty of Hubertusburg of 1763 ended the conflict, changed no boundaries C. Now frederick THE GREAT 1. Prussia was now a power D. William Pitt’s strategy to win North America 1. Saw German conflict as a way to divert French resources and attention 2. Wanted all of North America east of the Mississippi 3. Sent out many troops 4. American cooperation 5. French military was corrupt and France couldn’t supply North American forces 6. British defeated French in 1759 7. Pitt obtained the French West Indies too a) Income of captured sugar helped fund war 8. Complete worldwide military victory for GB E. Treaty of Paris of 1763 1. Britain got all of Canada, Ohio River Valley, and east of Mississippi River valley 2. Returned some stuff in India to French 3. GB now a world power 4. Also in 7 years war, Prussia got Silesia from Austria  5. Undermined integrity of HRE 8.6 The American Revolution and Europe I. End of European colonial domination in Americas II. Continued conflict between France and GB A. French support of colonists worsened their already suffering monarchy III. Resistance to the Imperial Search for Revenue A. British faced the cost of maintained their empire, couldn’t carry alone B. National debt and domestic taxation rose C. Began with Sugar Act 1. More revenue from imports D. Stamp Act 1. Taxed legal documents and papers E. Americans not represented in Parliament F. Stamp Act Congress G. Sons of Liberty H. Stamp Act repealed 1. Declaratory Act IV. The crisis and independence A. Charles Townshend 1. Passed a series of revenue acts on colonial imports a) Much resistance 2. Sent over others to enforce 3. Boston Massacre 4. Townshend repealed B. Tea Act C. Intolerable Acts (after Boston Tea Party) D. Quebec Act extended boundaries of Quebec to include Ohio River Valley E. First and Second Continental Congresses 1. First, Battles of Lexington and Concord 2. Battle of Bunker Hill 3. Thomas Paine: Common Sense a) In favor of separating from GB F. Declaration of Independence G. Ben Franklin persuaded French to support rebellion, later Spanish joined H. Won at the Battle of Yorktown I. Treaty of Paris ended conflict, 13 independent colonies V. American Political Ideas A. Americans looked to English Revolution of 1688 as a source for many of their liberties 1. Whig ideas (Locke) 2. Commonwealthmen a) British political writers  (1) Republican political ideas (a) Puritan revolution b) John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon (1) Criticized government’s patronage and parliamentary management (a) Corrupts, undermined liberty (b) Parliamentary taxation was a means of financing political corruptions VI. Events in GB A. George III believed in royal over aristocratic 1. Ignored Whig families and appointed Earl of Bute as first minister a) None got support until Lord North B. Challenge of John Wilkes 1. London political radical and member of Parliament a) Criticized Bute and France, got arrested but released b) Fled and came back and was reelected to Parliament, House of Commons refused to seat him c) Finally seated after becoming mayor of London VII. Movement for parliamentary reform A. British subjects at home were underrepresented just as Americans VIII. Yorkshire Association Movement A. Christopher Wyvil organized the Yorkshire Association Movement 1. Mass meeting to demand moderate changes in the corrupt system of parliamentary elections 2. Parliament was not insensitive a) Lessened power of crown b) Abolished some patronage IX. Broader Impact of the American Revolution A. Demonstrated to Europe the possibility of government without monarchy B. Radical movement that encouraged others to question traditional European government