Chapter 5: Learning PDF

Chapter 5: Learning Overview of Learning Definition: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential resulting from experience or practice. Key Features: ○ Involves experience and is relatively permanent. ○ Excludes temporary cha...

Chapter 5: Learning Overview of Learning Definition: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential resulting from experience or practice. Key Features: ○ Involves experience and is relatively permanent. ○ Excludes temporary changes due to drugs, fatigue, or habituation. ○ Distinction between learning (inferred process) and performance (observable action). Key Topics to Focus On 1. Types of Learning: ○ Classical Conditioning ○ Operant Conditioning ○ Observational Learning ○ Cognitive Learning ○ Verbal Learning ○ Skill Learning 2. Processes in Learning (under Operant Conditioning): ○ Reinforcement ○ Extinction ○ Generalization ○ Discrimination ○ Spontaneous Recovery 3. Determinants of Learning 4. Learning Disabilities Types of Learning 1. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Definition: Associative learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (US) to elicit a conditioned response (CR). Key Concepts: ○ Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally triggers a response (e.g., food). ○ Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural reaction to US (e.g., salivation). ○ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Neutral stimulus paired with US (e.g., bell).  ○ Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation to bell). Experiment: ○ Ivan Pavlov’s study on digestion in dogs: Dogs naturally salivated when presented with food (US -> UR). A bell (CS) was repeatedly rung before presenting food. Eventually, the dogs salivated upon hearing the bell alone (CS -> CR). ○ This demonstrated learning through association. Determinants: ○ Time Relations between Stimuli: Simultaneous Conditioning: CS and US are presented together. Delayed Conditioning: CS starts before and overlaps with US (most effective). Trace Conditioning: CS starts and ends before US with a gap. Backward Conditioning: US is presented before CS (least effective). ○ Type of Unconditioned Stimuli: Appetitive (pleasant, e.g., food) vs. Aversive (unpleasant, e.g., shock). ○ Intensity of Conditioned Stimuli: More intense CS accelerates response acquisition by increasing attention and salience. 2. Operant Conditioning (Skinner) Definition: Learning through consequences (reinforcement or punishment). Key Concepts: ○ Operants: Voluntary responses influenced by consequences. ○ Reinforcement: Positive Reinforcement: Adding pleasant stimuli (e.g., praise). Negative Reinforcement: Removing unpleasant stimuli (e.g., stopping a loud noise). ○ Punishment: Reduces likelihood of behavior but does not reinforce. Determinants of Operant Conditioning: Reinforcer: any stimulus or event, which increases the probability of the occurrence of a (desired) response ○ Types of Reinforcement: Positive Reinforcement: Rewards that strengthen behavior. Negative Reinforcement: Removal of unpleasant stimuli to strengthen behavior. Primary Reinforcers: Stimuli that inherently satisfy basic biological needs, such as food, water, and warmth. For example, food given to a  hungry animal acts as a primary reinforcer, directly fulfilling a biological necessity. Secondary Reinforcers: Stimuli that acquire their value through association with primary reinforcers, such as money, praise, and awards. For instance, money can be exchanged for food or other primary reinforcers, making it valuable in learned contexts. Punishment: Reduces or suppresses the response. It is not permanent. Example ,A student who is consistently late to class receives detention. This punishment discourages the student from being late again.) Schedules of Reinforcement: Continuous Reinforcement: Reward after every response (faster learning, less resistance to extinction). Partial Reinforcement: Reward intermittently (slower learning, more resistance to extinction). Fixed Ratio: Reward after a set number of responses. Variable Ratio: Reward after a varying number of responses (most effective). Fixed Interval: Reward after a fixed time interval. Variable Interval: Reward after varying time intervals. ○ Number of Reinforcements: A higher number of reinforcements during initial learning strengthens behavior. Fewer reinforcements after acquisition maintain behavior with resistance to extinction. ○ Other Features: Magnitude of Reinforcement: Larger rewards strengthen behavior more effectively. Timing of Reinforcement: Immediate reinforcement leads to faster learning compared to delayed reinforcement. Delayed Reinforcement: Delay in the delivery of reinforcement leads to poorer level of performance. It can be easily shown by asking children which reward they will prefer for doing some chore. Smaller rewards immediately after doing the chore will be preferred rather than a big one after a long gap  ○ Processes in Learning: ○ Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior by increasing its likelihood. Types: Positive Reinforcement: Adds pleasant stimuli. Negative Reinforcement: Removes unpleasant stimuli. Primary Reinforcers: Satisfy basic needs. Secondary Reinforcers: Gain value through association. ○ Extinction: Gradual weakening of a learned response when reinforcement stops. Example: If a dog stops receiving food after hearing a bell, the salivation response weakens over time. ○ Generalization and Discrimination: Generalization: Responding to stimuli similar to the CS (e.g., salivating to a bell and a similar-sounding chime). Discrimination: Differentiating between stimuli and responding only to specific ones (e.g., salivating to a bell but not to a chime). ○ Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period. Example: A dog may salivate to the bell again after extinction and a pause. Experiment: ○ Skinner’s studies with rats in the Skinner Box: A rat pressed a lever and received food (positive reinforcement). Skinner conducted his studies on rats and pigeons in specially made boxes, called the Skinner Box. As the number of trials increases, the rat takes lesser and lesser time to press the lever for food. It is obvious that lever pressing is an operant response and getting food is its consequence. Demonstrated how consequences shape voluntary behavior. 3. Observational Learning (Bandura) Definition: Learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others, rather than through direct experience or reinforcement. Experiment: ○ Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study: Bandura demonstrated observational learning through an experiment involving children and a Bobo doll (an inflatable toy). Procedure: Children were divided into three groups, each observing a model interacting with the Bobo doll. Group 1: Observed the model behaving aggressively (e.g., hitting and yelling at the doll). Group 2: Observed the model behaving non-aggressively. Group 3: No model was shown (control group). Results:  Children who observed the aggressive model were more likely to imitate aggressive behaviors, particularly when the model was rewarded for their actions (vicarious reinforcement). Children in the non-aggressive and control groups displayed significantly less aggression. Conclusion: Behavior can be learned through observation, even without direct reinforcement. Vicarious reinforcement and punishment play critical roles in observational learning. Applications of Observational Learning: ○ Education: Teachers act as role models, demonstrating positive behaviors and attitudes for students to imitate. ○ Parenting: Children often learn behaviors (e.g., social skills, language) by observing parents. ○ Media Influence: Television, social media, and video games can significantly impact behavior, both positively and negatively. ○ Workplace: Employees learn workplace norms and practices by observing peers and supervisors. 4. Cognitive Learning Insight Learning: ○ Definition: Sudden realization of the solution to a problem without trial-and-error learning. Insight involves re-organizing the elements of a problem to achieve an understanding of the solution. ○ Experiment (Kohler): 1. Kohler conducted experiments with chimpanzees. In one experiment, a banana was placed out of reach while sticks were available nearby. After some initial unsuccessful attempts, the chimpanzee suddenly realized it could use the stick to retrieve the banana. This "aha" moment exemplifies insight learning. ○ Key Features: 1. Insight is immediate and does not rely on gradual reinforcement. 2. It involves cognitive processing and re-structuring of the problem. 3. The solution is transferable to similar problems. Latent Learning: ○ Definition: A new behaviour is learned but not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided for displaying it. ○ Experiment (Tolman): 1. Tolman placed rats in a maze without any rewards. The rats explored the maze freely. Later, when food was placed at the end, the rats were able to navigate the maze quickly, indicating they had learned its layout earlier but had not demonstrated it until motivated.  ○ Key Features: 1. Involves learning that remains hidden until reinforcement is provided. 2. Demonstrates the role of cognitive maps—internal representations of spatial layouts. 3. Shows that learning is not always directly tied to observable behavior.. Verbal Learning Definition: Learning that involves the acquisition, association, and recall of verbal material such as words, sentences, or meaningful units. Methods Used in Studying Verbal Learning 1. Paired-Associates: ○ Linking pairs of stimuli and responses (e.g., learning the word "dog" is associated with "bark"). 2. Serial Learning: ○ Memorizing lists of words or items in a fixed order (e.g., learning a grocery list in sequence). 3. Free Recall: ○ Recalling items from memory in any order without cues. Determinants of Verbal Learning 1. Meaningfulness: ○ Words with personal or cultural significance are easier to learn and recall. 2. Organization: ○ Grouping items into categories or chunks enhances memory (e.g., organizing animals vs. fruits). 3. Length of Material: ○ Shorter lists or material are easier to learn and recall than longer ones. 6. Skill Learning Definition: Acquiring the ability to perform tasks efficiently and effectively through practice and experience. Nature of Skills: 1. Goal-Oriented: Skills are learned behaviors aimed at achieving specific objectives (e.g., typing, playing an instrument). 2. Requires Practice: Skills develop through repetition and improvement over time. 3. Involves Coordination: Combines physical and cognitive elements for smooth execution.  4. Can be Simple or Complex: Simple skills involve fewer steps (e.g., tying shoelaces), while complex skills require multiple coordinated actions (e.g., driving a car). Phases of Skill Acquisition: 1. Cognitive Phase: The learner understands the task and develops a mental representation of how to perform it. Relies on instructions, demonstrations, and trial-and-error learning. Errors are frequent during this phase as the learner experiments. 2. Associative Phase: The learner begins refining the skill through practice. Fewer errors occur, and performance becomes more consistent. Feedback is used to make adjustments and improve precision. 3. Autonomous Phase: The skill becomes automatic, requiring minimal conscious effort. Performance is smooth, efficient, and resistant to distractions. This phase is achieved after extensive practice. Key Insight: Progression through these phases requires deliberate practice, feedback, and motivation. Factors Facilitating Learning 1. Motivation Definition: The internal drive or desire that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal. Types: ○ Intrinsic Motivation: Comes from within (e.g., curiosity, enjoyment). ○ Extrinsic Motivation: Driven by external rewards (e.g., grades, money). Role in Learning: ○ High motivation leads to increased effort, focus, and persistence. ○ Intrinsic motivation fosters deep engagement and long-term retention. 2. Preparedness for Learning Definition: The readiness of an organism to learn specific tasks based on its biological and cognitive capabilities. Examples: ○ Birds learning to peck for food (biological preparedness). ○ Children learning language during sensitive developmental periods. Role in Learning: ○ Ensures effective acquisition of behaviors aligned with natural abilities. Table: Continuous vs. Partial Reinforcement Feature Continuous Reinforcement Partial Reinforcement Definition Reward provided after every Reward provided intermittently. correct response. Learning Speed Faster acquisition of behavior. Slower acquisition of behavior. Resistance to Low (behavior stops quickly if High (behavior persists longer Extinction reward ceases). without reward). Example Giving a treat every time a dog Giving a treat occasionally when sits. a dog sits. Learning Disabilities Definition: Disorders that affect the ability to acquire and use academic skills, despite average intelligence and adequate sensory capabilities. These difficulties are neurologically based and persist over time. Characteristics: 1. Impacts on specific areas of learning such as reading (dyslexia), writing (dysgraphia), or math (dyscalculia). 2. May involve challenges in cognitive processing, such as memory, attention, or reasoning. 3. Often co-occur with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or other behavioral conditions. Symptoms: 1. Persistent difficulty in acquiring foundational skills like reading, writing, and arithmetic. 2. Challenges in organizing information and following multi-step instructions. 3. Poor motor coordination, such as difficulty holding a pencil or tying shoelaces. 4. Inconsistent performance, where strengths in some areas contrast with weaknesses in others. 5. Difficulty processing auditory or visual information (e.g., distinguishing sounds in words or recognizing shapes and letters). 6. Dyslexia: Specific learning difficulty characterized by trouble reading fluently and accurately. 7. Dysgraphia: Difficulty with handwriting and written expression. 8. Dyscalculia: Difficulty understanding numbers and performing mathematical calculations. Key Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning Aspect Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Basis Association between two stimuli Consequences of behavior Type of Behavior Involuntary (reflexive) Voluntary Reinforcement Experimenter controls US Learner’s behavior controls Control reinforcement Response Type Elicited by stimulus (e.g., Emitted voluntarily by the salivation to CS) organism