Learning - Chapter 5 PDF

5 Learning Frida: Labrador and Life Saver I n the Fall of 2017, a powerful earthquake hit the state of Oaxaca, Mexico, killing nearly 300 people. As rescu- ers rushed to the scene, one stood o...

5 Learning Frida: Labrador and Life Saver I n the Fall of 2017, a powerful earthquake hit the state of Oaxaca, Mexico, killing nearly 300 people. As rescu- ers rushed to the scene, one stood out. She was wearing goggles, a harness, and 2 pairs of boots. When pho- tos hit the media, she became a much beloved hero: Frida, the 7-year-old labrador retriever (Castillo, 2017). There is no doubting that Frida looked adorable but, like other rescue dogs, she was a trained professional. A member of the Mexican Navy’s canine unit, in the days following the earthquake she assisted in the rescue of over a dozen people, including several children trapped in a collapsed school. Working with humans and other dogs, Frida has assisted in numerous disaster rescues. The sight of dogs working to rescue people in the aftermath of a disaster is a common one. We admire their courage and ability but may not always appreciate the grueling process that brought them to these skills. Rescue dogs must demonstrate mastery of numerous difficult tasks, including staying focused even when not on leash and performing search and rescue even without their regular trainers. These dogs must prove that they will perform their duties even when the rewards they receive are little more than a hasty pat on the head from a rescue worker. Rescue dogs are trained professionals. You might wonder how they are able to perform the complex acts required to rescue those in need. The answer can be found in the techniques identified and honed in the psychology of learning, our focus in this chapter. © KidStock/Blend Images/Getty Images ©Karl-josefáhildenbrand/Epa/REX/Shutterstock PREVIEW This chapter begins by defining learning and sketching out its main types—associative learning and observational learning. We then turn to two types of associative learning— classical conditioning and operant conditioning—followed by a close look at observational learning. We next explore the role of cognitive processes in learning, before finally considering biological, cultural, and psychological constraints on learning. As you read, ask yourself about your own beliefs concerning learning. If a dog can learn to enter dangerous areas to search for human survivors surely the human potential for learning has barely been tapped. 1 Types of Learning Learning anything new involves change. Once you learned the alphabet, it did not leave you; it became part of a “new you” who had been changed through the process of learning. Similarly, once you learn how to drive a car, you do not have to go through the process again at a later time. If you ever try out for the X-Games, you may break a few bones along the way, but at some point you probably will learn a trick or two through the experience, changing from a novice to an enthusiast who can at least stay on top of a skateboard. By way of experience, too, you may have learned that you have to study to do well on a test, that there usually is an opening act at a rock concert, and that a field goal in U.S. foot- ball adds 3 points to the score. Putting these pieces together, we arrive at a definition of learning learning: a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience. A systematic, rela- If someone were to ask you what you learned in class today, you might mention new tively permanent ideas you heard about, lists you memorized, or concepts you mastered. However, how change in behavior that occurs through would you define learning if you could not refer to unobservable mental pro- cesses? You might follow the lead of behavioral psychologists. Behaviorism is Learning is RELATIVELY experience. a theory of learning that focuses on observable behaviors. From the behav- permanent—sometimes we forget what behaviorism iorist perspective, understanding the causes of behavior requires looking at we've learned. Also, learning involves A theory of learn- the environmental factors that produce them. Behaviorists view internal EXPERIENCE. Changes in behavior ing that focuses solely on observ- states like thinking, wishing, and hoping as behaviors that are caused by that result from physical maturation able behaviors, external factors as well. Psychologists who examine learning from a behavioral would not be considered learning. discounting the perspective define learning as relatively stable, observable changes in behavior. importance of such The behavioral approach has emphasized general laws that guide behavior change mental activity as and make sense of some of the puzzling aspects of human life. thinking, wishing, and hoping. Behaviorism maintains that the principles of learning are the same whether we are talking about animals or humans. Because of the influence of behaviorism, psychologists’ understanding of learning started with studies of rats, cats, pigeons, and even raccoons. A century of research on learning in animals and in humans suggests that many of the principles generated initially in research on animals also apply to humans (Domjan, 2015). In this chapter we look at two types of learning: associative learning and observational associative learning. Associative learning occurs when we make a connection, or an association, learning between two events. Conditioning is the process of learning these associations. There are Learning that two types of conditioning: classical and operant, both of which have been studied occurs when an organism makes a by behaviorists. connection, or an In classical conditioning, organisms learn the association between two This is going to sound very association, be- stimuli. As a result of this association, organisms learn to anticipate abstract right now. Hang on—once we tween two events. events. For example, lightning is associated with thunder and regularly get to the details, it will make sense. precedes it. Thus, when we see lightning, we anticipate that we will hear Ty p es of Learn i n g // 165  Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Stimulus 1 Stimulus 2 Doctor’s office Shot Behavior Consequences FIGURE 1 Associative Learning: Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning (left) In this example of classical conditioning, a child associates a doctor’s office (stimulus 1) with getting a painful injection (stimulus 2). (right) In this example of operant conditioning, performing well in a swimming competition (behavior) becomes associated with getting awards (consequences). (doctor office) ©Image Source/Jupiterimages; (shot) ©Amble Design; (swimmer) ©Ryan McVay/Getty Images; (medalist) ©MJTH/Shutterstock thunder soon afterward. Fans of horror films know the power of classical conditioning. Watching a terrifying film, we know that when the camera focuses on a character, but leaves the frame open to show what is behind that person, something terrible is about to happen. In operant conditioning, organisms learn the association between a behavior and a consequence, such as a reward. As a result of this association, organisms learn to increase behaviors that are followed by rewards and to decrease behaviors that are fol- lowed by punishment. For example, children are likely to repeat their good manners if their parents reward them with candy after they have shown good manners. Also, if children’s bad manners are followed by scolding words and harsh glances by parents, the children are less likely to repeat the bad manners. Figure 1 compares classical and operant conditioning. Much of learning, however, is not a result of direct consequences but rather of expo- sure to models performing a behavior or skill. For instance, as you watch someone shoot baskets, you get a sense of how it is done. The learning that takes place when a person observes and imitates another’s behavior is called observational learning. Observational observational learning is a common way that people learn in educational and other settings. Obser- learning Learning that vational learning is different from the associative learning described by behaviorism occurs through because it relies on mental processes: The learner has to pay attention, remember, observing and Have you ever noticed that and reproduce what the model did. Observational learning is especially important imitating another’s to human beings. In fact, watching other people is another way in which human behavior. humans' eyes differ from other animals' infants acquire skills. eyes because the "whites" can be seen? Human infants differ from baby monkeys in their strong reliance on imita- It might be that this characteristic tion (Marshall & Meltzoff, 2014). After watching an adult model perform a allows humans to model one another task, a baby monkey will figure out its own way to do it, but a human infant closely—because we can see what the will do exactly what the model did. Imitation may be the human baby’s way to model is looking at. solve the huge problem it faces: to learn the vast amount of cultural knowledge that is part of human life. Many of our behaviors are rather arbitrary. Why do we clap to show approval or wave “hello” or “bye-bye”? The human infant has a lot to learn and may be well served to follow the old adage “When in Rome, do as the Romans do.” Learning applies to many areas of acquiring new behaviors, skills, and knowledge. Our focus in this chapter is on the two types of associative learning—classical conditioning and operant conditioning—and on observational learning. 166 // C H A P T E R 5 // Lea r ning  1. Any situation that involves learning B. Learning is not permanent. very good, because dogs and A. requires some relatively perma- C. Learning occurs through humans both learn this way. nent change to occur. experience. B. He is using operant conditioning, B. requires a great deal of effort. D. Learning processes in humans are and his chances for success are C. involves conscious determination. distinct from learning processes in very good, because dogs and D. is relatively automatic. animals. humans both learn this way. C. He is using observational learning, 2. A cat that associates the sound of a can opener with being fed has APPLY IT! 4. After seeing dogs and his chances for success are catching Frisbees in the park, Lionel de- pretty bad, because dogs are not learned through cides that he wants to teach his dog Ivan as likely as people to learn in this A. behaviorism. to do it too. He takes Ivan to the park way. B. operant conditioning. and sits with him, making sure that he D. He is using classical conditioning, C. classical conditioning. watches the other dogs successfully and his chances for success are D. observational learning. catching Frisbees. What technique is pretty bad, because dogs are 3. Which one of the following state- Lionel using on Ivan, and what are the much less likely than people to ments is true about learning? chances for success? learn in this way. A. Learning can be accomplished A. He is using associative learning, only by higher-level species, such and his chances for success are as mammals. 2 Classical Conditioning Early one morning, Bob is in the shower. While he showers, his wife enters the bathroom and flushes the toilet. Scalding hot water bursts down on Bob, causing him to yell in pain. The next day, Bob is back for his morning shower, and once again his wife enters the bathroom and flushes the toilet. Panicked by the sound of the toilet flushing, Bob yelps in fear and jumps out of the shower stream. Bob’s panic at the sound of the toilet illus- trates the learning process of classical conditioning, in which a neutral stimulus (the sound classical conditioning of a toilet flushing) becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus (the pain of scalding Learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes as- hot water) and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response (panic). sociated with an innately meaningful stimulus and ac- quires the capacity to elicit a similar response. Pavlov’s Studies Even before beginning this course, you might have heard about Pavlov’s dogs. The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov’s work is very well known. Still, it is easy to take its true signifi- cance for granted. Importantly, Pavlov demonstrated that neutral aspects of the environ- ment can attain the capacity to evoke responses through pairing with other stimuli and that bodily processes can be influenced by environmental cues. In the early 1900s, Pavlov was interested in the way the body digests food. In his experiments, he routinely placed meat powder in a dog’s mouth, causing the dog to sali- vate. By accident, Pavlov noticed that the meat powder was not the only stimulus that caused the dog to salivate. The dog salivated in response to a number of stimuli associated with the food, such as the sight of the food dish, the sight of the individual who brought the food into the room, and the sound of the door closing when the food arrived. Pavlov recognized that the dog’s association of these sights and sounds with the food was an important type of learning, which came to be called classical conditioning. Pavlov wanted to know why the dog salivated in reaction to various sights and sounds before eating the meat powder. He observed that the dog’s behavior included both unlearned and learned components. The unlearned part of classical conditioning is based on the fact that some stimuli automatically produce certain responses apart from any prior learning; in other words, they are innate (inborn). Reflexes are such automatic stimulus–response connections. They include salivation in response to food, Cla s s ic a l C on d it ion in g // 167  Pavlov (the white-bearded gentleman in the center) is shown demonstrating the nature of classical conditioning to students at the Military Medical Academy in Russia. ©Universal Images Group/Getty Images nausea in response to spoiled food, shivering in response to low temperature, cough- ing in response to throat congestion, pupil constriction in response to light, and unconditioned stimulus (US) withdrawal in response to pain. An unconditioned stimulus (US) is a stimulus that A stimulus that produces a produces a response without prior learning; food was the US in Pavlov’s experiments. response without prior An unconditioned response (UR) is an unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited unconditioned learning. by the US. Unconditioned responses are involuntary; they happen in response to a response (UR) stimulus without conscious effort. In Pavlov’s experiment, salivating in response to An unlearned re- action that is auto- food was the UR. matically elicited conditioned stimulus (CS) In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus by the uncondi- A previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned tioned stimulus. that eventually elicits a condi- stimulus. The conditioned response (CR) is the learned response to the conditioned tioned response after being conditioned paired with the uncondi- stimulus that occurs after CS–US pairing (Pavlov, 1927). Sometimes conditioned response (CR) tioned stimulus. responses are quite similar to unconditioned responses, but typically they are not as The learned strong. response to the In studying a dog’s response to various stimuli associated with meat powder, Pavlov conditioned stimu- rang a bell before giving meat powder to the dog. Until then, ringing the bell did lus that occurs after a condi- Note that the association between not have a particular effect on the dog, except perhaps to wake the dog from a tioned stimulus– food and salivating is natural (unlearned), nap. The bell was a neutral stimulus. However, the dog began to associate the unconditioned sound of the bell with the food and salivated when it heard the bell. The bell stimulus pairing. while the association between a bell and had become a conditioned (learned) stimulus (CS), and salivation was now a salivating is learned. conditioned response (CR). In the case of Bob’s interrupted shower, the sound of the toilet flushing was the CS, and panicking was the CR after the scalding water (US) and the flushing sound (CS) were paired. Figure 2 summarizes how classical con- ditioning works, identifying each step in Pavlov’s procedure. Research has shown that salivation can be used as a conditioned response not only in dogs and humans but also in, of all things, cockroaches. In one study, researchers paired the smell of peppermint (the CS, which was applied to the cockroaches’ anten- nae) with sugary water (the US) (Watanabe & Mizunami, 2007). Cockroaches naturally salivate (the UR) in response to sugary foods, and after repeated pairings between the peppermint smell and sugary water, the cockroaches salivated in response to the peppermint scent (the CR). Collecting and measuring the cockroach saliva, Awesome addition to any the researchers found that the cockroaches had slobbered over that scent for résumé: Cockroach Saliva Technician. two minutes. 168 // C H A P T E R 5 // Lea r ning  Before Conditioning US UR Neutral stimulus No response Food Dog salivates Bell No salivation Conditioning After Conditioning Neutral stimulus + US UR CS CR Bell Food Dog salivates Bell Dog salivates + FIGURE 2 Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning In one experiment, Pavlov presented a neutral stimulus (bell) just before an unconditioned stimulus (food). The neutral stimulus became a conditioned stimulus by being paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Subsequently, the conditioned stimulus (bell) by itself was able to elicit the dog’s salivation. ACQUISITION Whether it is human beings, dogs, or cockroaches, the first part of classical conditioning is called acquisition. Acquisition is the initial learning of the con- acquisition nection between the US and CS when these two stimuli are paired (as with the peppermint The initial learning of the con- scent and the sugary water). During acquisition, the CS is repeatedly presented followed nection between the uncon- ditioned stimulus and the by the US. Eventually, the CS will produce a response. Note that classical conditioning conditioned stimulus when is a type of learning that occurs without awareness or effort, based on the presentation these two stimuli are paired. of two stimuli together. For this pairing to work, however, two important factors must be present: contiguity and contingency. Contiguity simply means that the CS and US are presented very close together in time—even a mere fraction of a second (Kirkpatrick & Balsam, 2016). In So, contiguity means the CS Pavlov’s work, if the bell had rung 20 minutes before the presentation of the food, the dog probably would not have associated the bell with the food. and US are close in time. Contingency However, pairing the CS and US close together in time is not all that is means the CS is reliably and specifically needed for conditioning to occur. paired with the US. Contingency means that the CS must not only precede the US closely in time; it must also serve as a reliable indicator that the US is on its way (Rescorla, 1966, 1988, 2009). To get a sense of the importance of contingency, imagine that the dog in Pavlov’s experiment is exposed to a ringing bell at random times all day long. Whenever the dog receives food, the delivery of the food always immediately follows a bell ring. However, in this situation, the dog will not associate the bell with the food, because the bell is not a reliable signal that food is coming: It rings a lot when no food is on the way. Whereas contiguity refers to the fact that the CS and US occur close together in time, contingency refers to the information value of the CS relative to the US. When contingency is present, the CS provides a systematic signal that the US is on its way. Cla s s ic a l C on d it ion in g // 169  GENERALIZATION AND DISCRIMINATION Pavlov found that the dog salivated in response not only to the bell tone but also to other sounds, such as a whistle. These sounds had not been paired with the unconditioned stimulus of the food. Pavlov discovered that the more similar the noise was to the original sound of the bell, the stronger was the dog’s salivary flow. generalization (classical Generalization in classical conditioning is the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar conditioning) to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned The tendency of a new response (Harris, Andrew, & Livesey, 2012; Lissek & others, 2014). Generalization has stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus value in preventing learning from being tied to specific stimuli. For example, once you learn to elicit a response that is the association between a given CS (say, flashing police lights behind your car) and a similar to the conditioned particular US (the dread associated with being pulled over), you do not have to learn it response. all over again when a similar stimulus presents itself (a never-before seen police car with its siren moaning as it cruises directly behind your car). In classical conditioning, this is called stimulus generalization. If you become nervous at the sight of a car that looks like a police car (but is not one), that would also qualify as stimulus generalization. Stimulus generalization is not always beneficial. For example, the cat that generalizes from a harmless minnow to a dangerous piranha has a major problem; therefore, it is important discrimination to also discriminate among stimuli. Discrimination in classical conditioning is the process of An unjustified negative or learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others (Schreurs & others, 2013). To produce harmful action toward a discrimination, Pavlov gave food to the dog only after ringing the bell and not after other member of a group simply because the person belongs sounds. In this way, the dog learned to distinguish between the bell and other sounds. to that group. EXTINCTION AND SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY After conditioning the extinction (classical dog to salivate at the sound of a bell, Pavlov rang the bell repeatedly in a single session conditioning) and did not give the dog any food. Eventually the dog stopped salivating. This result is The weakening of the condi- tioned response when the extinction, which in classical conditioning is the weakening of the conditioned response unconditioned stimulus is when the unconditioned stimulus is absent (Bouton & Todd, 2014). Without continued absent. association with the US, the CS loses its power to produce the CR. Extinction is not always the end of a conditioned response (Goode, Holloway-Erickson, & Maren, 2017). The day after Pavlov extinguished the conditioned salivation to the High sound of a bell, he took the dog to the labora- tory and rang the bell but still did not give the dog any meat powder. The dog salivated, indi- Strength of conditioned response cating that an extinguished response can spon- taneously recur. Spontaneous recovery is the spontaneous process in classical conditioning by which a recovery conditioned response can recur after a time The process in classical condition- delay, without further conditioning (Goode, ing by which a Holloway-Erickson, & Maren, 2017; Franssen conditioned re- & others, 2017). Consider an example of spon- sponse can recur taneous recovery you may have experienced: after a time delay, You thought that you had forgotten about without further conditioning. (extinguished) an ex-girlfriend or boyfriend, Low but then you found yourself in a particular con- Acquisition Extinction Rest Spontaneous recovery text (perhaps the restaurant where you always CS–US paired CS alone CS alone dined together), and you suddenly got a mental image of your ex, accompanied by an emo- FIGURE 3 The Strength of a Classically Conditioned Response tional reaction to him or her from the past During Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery During (spontaneous recovery). acquisition, the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are Figure 3 shows the sequence of acquisition, associated. As the graph shows, when this association occurs, the strength of extinction, and spontaneous recovery. Sponta- the conditioned response increases. During extinction, the conditioned stimulus is presented alone, and as can be seen, the result is a decrease in the neous recovery can occur several times, but as conditioned response. After a rest period, spontaneous recovery appears, long as the conditioned stimulus is presented although the strength of the conditioned response is not nearly as great at this alone (that is, without the unconditioned stimu- point as it was after a number of CS–US pairings. When the CS is presented lus), spontaneous recovery becomes weaker and alone again, after spontaneous recovery, the response is extinguished rapidly. eventually ceases. 170 // C H A P T E R 5 // Lea r ning Classical Conditioning in Humans Classical conditioning has a great deal of survival value for human beings (Powell & Honey, 2013). Here we review examples of classical conditioning at work in human life. EXPLAINING FEARS Classical conditioning provides an explanation of fears (Haesen & others, 2017; Waters & others, 2014). John B. Watson (who coined the term behaviorism) and Rosalie Rayner (1920) demonstrated classical conditioning’s role in the development of fears with an infant named Albert. First, they showed Albert a white laboratory rat to see if he was afraid of it. He was not (so the rat was a neutral stimulus or CS). As Albert played with the rat, the researchers sounded a loud noise behind his head (the noise was then the US). The noise caused little Albert to cry (the UR). After only Watson and Rayner conditioned 11-month- seven pairings of the loud noise with the white rat, Albert began to fear the old Albert to fear a white rat by pairing the rat even when the noise was not sounded (the CR). Albert’s fear was gener- rat with a loud noise. When little Albert was alized to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat. later presented with other stimuli similar to Today, Watson and Rayner’s (1920) study would violate the ethical guide- the rat, such as the rabbit shown here with lines of the American Psychological Association. In any case, Watson cor- Albert, he was afraid of them too. This study illustrates stimulus generalization in rectly concluded that we learn many of our fears through classical classical conditioning. conditioning. We might develop fear of the dentist because of a painful ©Professor Benjamin Harris, University of New Hampshire experience, fear of driving after having been in a car crash, and fear of dogs after having been bitten by one. If we can learn fears through classical conditioning, we also can possibly unlearn them through that process (Garcia, 2017; Gujjar & others, 2017). In fact, classical conditioning is incorporated into therapies for treating phobias. BREAKING HABITS Psychologists have applied classical conditioning to Poor Albert, right? But anyway, helping individuals unlearn certain feelings and behaviors (Bulganin, Bach, & let's bring meaning to his suffering by Wittmann, 2014). For example, counterconditioning is a classical conditioning learning something from it: procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response. Counterconditioning can be used to break the US = The loud noise blast association between certain stimuli (such as a drug of abuse) and positive CS = Rat feelings (Goltseker, Bolotin, & Barak, 2017). UR = Crying (in response to the Aversive conditioning is a form of treatment that involves repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus. Electric shocks and nausea- loud blast) inducing substances are examples of noxious stimuli that are used in aversive CR = Crying (in response conditioning (Kaag & others, 2016). In a treatment to reduce drinking, for exam- to the rat) ple, every time a person drinks an alcoholic beverage, he or she also consumes a mixture that induces nausea. In classical conditioning terminology, the alcoholic beverage counterconditioning is the conditioned stimulus, and the nausea-inducing agent is the unconditioned stimulus. A classical conditioning procedure for changing the Through a repeated pairing of alcohol with the nausea-inducing agent, alcohol becomes relationship between a con- the conditioned stimulus that elicits nausea, the conditioned response. As a consequence, ditioned stimulus and its con- alcohol no longer is associated with something pleasant but rather something highly ditioned response. unpleasant. Antabuse, a drug treatment for alcoholism since the late 1940s, is based on this association (Ullman, 1952). When someone takes this drug, ingesting even the small- aversive conditioning A form of treatment that con- est amount of alcohol will make the person quite ill, even if the exposure to the alcohol sists of repeated pairings of a is through mouthwash or cologne. Antabuse continues to be used in the treatment of stimulus with a very unpleas- alcoholism today (Mutschler & others, 2016; Stein & others, 2017). ant stimulus. Classical conditioning is likely to be at work whenever we engage in mindless, habitual behavior (Wood & Rünger, 2016). Cues in the environment serve as conditioned stimuli, evoking feelings and behaviors without thought. These associations become implicit “if-then” connections: If you are sitting in front of your laptop, then you check your e-mail. These automatic associations can function for good (for instance, you get up every morning and C la s s ic a l C on d it ion in g // 171  go for a run without even thinking) or ill (you walk into the kitchen and open the fridge for a snack without even thinking). Let’s consider an imaginary Pavlov’s dog, called Bill. After years of service in Pavlov’s lab, Bill is taken in by a caring family. Now, Bill is not kept in a state of hunger but is allowed to eat whenever he wants. But Bill’s family might notice that he runs to his dish, salivating, and seems to want to eat whenever the doorbell rings—even if he is not hungry. Why? Because Bill has acquired an association in which ringing bells evoke food-related behaviors. Bill, our imaginary dog, eats when he is not hungry because of a learned association. Could such a link help explain overeating and obesity in humans? The principles of classical conditioning have been used to combat overweight and obesity in humans by targeting such links (Goldschmidt & others, 2017). To read about this work, see the Intersection. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND THE PLACEBO EFFECT The placebo effect is the effect of a substance (such as a pill taken orally) or procedure (such as using a syringe to inject a fluid) that researchers use as a control to identify the actual effects of a treatment. Placebo effects are observable changes (such as a drop in pain) that cannot be explained by the effects of an actual treatment. The principles of classical conditioning help to explain some of these effects (Babel & others, 2017; Geuter, Koban, & Wager, 2017). In this case, the pill or syringe serves as a CS, and the actual drug is the US. After the experience of pain relief following the consumption of a drug, for instance, the pill or syringe might lead to a CR of lowered pain even in the absence of actual painkiller. The strongest evidence for the role of classical conditioning on placebo effects comes from research on the immune system and the endocrine system. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND THE IMMUNE AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS Even the human body’s internal organ systems can be classically condi- tioned. The immune system is the body’s natural defense against disease. Robert Ader and Nicholas Cohen have conducted a number of studies that reveal that classical condi- tioning can produce immunosuppression, a decrease in the production of antibodies, which can lower a person’s ability to fight disease (Ader, 2000; Ader & Cohen, 1975, 2000). The initial discovery of the link between classical conditioning and immunosuppression came as a surprise. In studying classical conditioning, Ader (1974) was examining how long a conditioned response would last in some laboratory rats. He paired a conditioned stimulus (saccharin solution) with an unconditioned stimulus, a drug called Cytoxan, which induces nausea. Afterward, while giving the rats saccharin-laced water without the accompanying Cytoxan, Ader watched to see how long it would take the rats to forget the association between the two. Unexpectedly, in the second month of the study, the rats developed a disease and began to die off. In analyzing this unforeseen result, Ader looked into the properties of the nausea-inducing drug he had used. He discovered that one of its side effects was immu- nosuppression. It turned out that the rats had been classically conditioned to associate sweet water not only with nausea but also with the shutdown of the immune system. The sweet water apparently had become a conditioned stimulus for immunosuppression. So, Ader found that immunosuppression can occur as a result of classical conditioning. Researchers have found that conditioned immune responses also occur in humans (Tekampe & others, 2017; Tong & others, 2014). For example, in one study, patients with multiple sclerosis were given a flavored drink prior to receiving a drug that suppressed the immune system. After this pairing, the flavored drink by itself lowered immune func- tioning, similarly to the drug (Giang & others, 1996). Similar results have been found for the endocrine system (Tekampe & others, 2017). The endocrine system is a loosely organized set of glands that produce and circulate This is pretty wild. Your body hormones. Research has shown that placebo pills can influence the secretion of hormones if patients had previous experiences with pills containing actual drugs is learning things without your even that affected hormone secretion (Benedetti & others, 2003). Studies have noticing it. revealed that the sympathetic nervous system (the part of the autonomic nervous systems that responds to stress) plays an important role in the learned associations 172 // C H A P T E R 5 // Lea r ning  INTERSECTION Learning and Health Psychology: Can Classical Conditioning Help Combat Obesity? T he rates of overweight and obesity in the United States are a public health crisis. A key variable that helps explain the problems of overweight and obesity is that many peo- ple eat when they are not hungry. Eating in the absence of hunger (or EAH) plays a role in weight gain. For example, children who eat when they are not hungry are more likely to be overweight as adolescents (Balantekin, Birch, & Savage, 2017). Interestingly, EAH is thought to be caused by reactions to food cues. The term food cues refers to the conditioned stimuli that are part of the eating experience, including the sight and smell of tasty food (Goldschmidt & others, 2017). The conditioned response to these cues includes a desire to eat, salivation, and other bodily changes associated with preparing to eat. Essentially, when people look at and smell tasty food, the body automatically prepares to eat. Using the principles of classical conditioning, is it possible to extinguish the link between food cues and eating, thereby reduc- ©Africa Studio/Shutterstock ing EAH? Now, the link between the sight and smell of a freshly baked chocolate chip cookie and eating that cookie might seem so strong that it might be next to impossible to extinguish. Can we as much as they wished, and the amount eaten was measured. separate food cues from eating? Research shows that we can. Recall that because they had just eaten the sandwiches, none of In one study (Schyns & others, 2016), overweight women were the participants could be hungry, and so the amount of the des- randomly assigned to one of two conditions. Women in the experi- serts they ate is a measure of EAH. The results? The experimental mental condition were exposed to the sights and smells of tasty group, the women who threw the desserts away, ate less than food. These women sat at a table topped with a variety of deli- those in the control condition. In addition, compared to controls, cious and decadent foods: chocolate mousse, whipped cream, those in the experimental group expressed less agreement with strawberry mousse, custard, and chocolate cake. They were en- the belief that if tasty food is in front of them, then they must eat it. couraged to look at the desserts, smell them, and fully imagine In short, staring at, smelling, and fantasizing about eating tasty themselves eating them—but no tasting allowed. After 80 minutes food, but then not eating it, began the process of severing the link of fantasizing about eating these desserts, the women were told between those sights, smells, and thoughts and eating. to throw the desserts in the trash. In the control group, partici- Pavlov’s original discovery of classical conditioning occurred in pants were read standard information about body satisfaction and the context of food and eating. We should not be surprised, then, healthy weight for the same amount of time. Next, all participants that classical conditioning holds a great deal of promise in devel- were required to eat two sandwiches to ensure that no partici- oping interventions to combat overeating. pants were hungry. Finally, the dependent variables were mea- sured. A key dependent variable was EAH, operationalized by a phony “taste test.” Participants were presented with the desserts \\ How much is your eating and were told to taste each one and make ratings. They could eat guided by food cues? between conditioned stimuli and immune and endocrine functioning (Geuter, Koban, & Wager, 2017; Saurer & others, 2008). TASTE AVERSION LEARNING Consider this scenario. Mike goes out for sushi with some friends and eats tekka maki (tuna roll), his favorite dish. He then proceeds to a jazz concert. Several hours later, he becomes very ill with stomach pains and nausea. A few weeks later, he tries to eat tekka maki again but cannot stand it. Importantly, Mike does not experience an aversion to jazz, even though he attended the jazz concert that night before getting sick. Mike’s experience exemplifies taste aversion: a special kind of classi- cal conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea Cl a s s ic a l C on d it ion in g // 173  (Davis & Riley, 2010; Garcia & Koelling, 1966; Kwok & Boakes, 2012; Lin, Arthurs, & Reilly, 2014; Scott, 2011). Taste aversion is special because it typically requires only one pairing of a neutral stimulus (a taste) with the uncon- ditioned response of nausea to seal that connection, often for a very long time. As we consider later, it is highly adap- tive to learn taste aversion in only one trial. Consider what would happen if an animal required multiple pairings of a taste with poison. It would likely not survive the acquisition phase. It is notable, though, that taste aversion can occur even if the taste experience had nothing to do with getting sick—perhaps, in Mike’s case, he was simply coming down with a stomach bug. Taste aversion can even occur when a person has been sickened by a completely separate event, such as being spun around in a chair (Klosterhalfen & oth- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is trying out taste aversion as a ers, 2000). Although taste aversion is often considered an tool to prevent Mexican gray wolves from preying on cattle. To exception to the rules of learning, Michael Domjan (2015) instill taste aversion for beef, the agency is deploying bait made of has suggested that this form of learning demonstrates how beef and cowhide but that also contains odorless and flavorless classical conditioning works in the natural world, where substances that induce nausea (Bryan, 2012). The hope is that wolves that are sickened by the bait will no longer prey on cattle associations matter to survival. and might even rear their pups to enjoy alternative meals. Across species, aversions like taste aversion can be ©Nagel Photography learned based on the way animals select their food. Humans pick our food based on its flavor. As such, it makes sense that we would learn aversions to flavors. In other animals, aversions might be learned based on the scent, color, or other aspects of food (Ward-Fear & others, 2017). Remember, in taste aversion, Taste aversion learning is especially important in the context of the traditional the taste or flavor is the CS; the agent treatment of some cancers. Radiation and chemotherapy for cancer often pro- that made the person sick (it could duce nausea in patients, with the result that individuals sometimes develop be a roller-coaster ride or salmonella, strong aversions to foods they ingest prior to treatment (Holmes, 1993; Jacobsen & others, 1993). Consequently, they may experience a general tendency to be for example) is the US; nausea or turned off by food, a situation that can lead to nutritional deficits (Mahmoud & vomiting is the UR; and taste others, 2011). aversion is the CR. Researchers have used classical conditioning principles to combat these taste aversions, especially in children, for whom antinausea medication is often ineffective (Skolin & others, 2006) and for whom aversion to protein-rich food is particularly prob- lematic (Ikeda & others, 2006). Early studies demonstrated that giving children a These results show discrimina- “scapegoat” conditioned stimulus prior to chemotherapy would help limit the tion in classical conditioning—the kids taste aversion to only one flavor (Broberg & Bernstein, 1987). For example, children might be given a particular flavor of Lifesaver candy or ice cream developed aversions only to the specific before receiving treatment. For these children, the nausea would be more scapegoat flavors. strongly associated with the Lifesaver or the ice cream flavor than with the foods they needed to eat for good nutrition. Fortunately, contemporary cancer treatments may be less likely to cause nausea and treatments for nausea itself have been developed. DRUG HABITUATION Over time, a person might develop a tolerance for a psy- choactive drug and need a higher and higher dose of the substance to get the same effect. habituation Classical conditioning helps to explain habituation, which refers to the decreased respon- Decreased responsiveness siveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations. A mind-altering drug is an uncondi- to a stimulus after repeated tioned stimulus (US): It naturally produces a response in the person’s body. This presentations. unconditioned stimulus is often paired systematically with a previously neutral stimulus (CS). For instance, the physical appearance of the drug in a pill or syringe, and the room where the person takes the drugs, are conditioned stimuli that are paired with the US of the drug. These repeated pairings should produce a conditioned response, and they do— but it is different from those we have considered so far. The conditioned response to a drug can be the body’s way of preparing for the effects of a drug (Everitt & Robbins, 2016). In this case, the body braces itself for the drug effects 174 // C H A P T E R 5 // Lea r ning PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD Marketing Between the Lines C lassical conditioning is the foundation for many of the commercials bombarding us daily. (Appropriately, when John Watson left the field of psychology, he went on to advertis- ing.) Think about it: Advertising involves creating an association between a product and pleasant feelings (buy that Caffè Misto grande and be happy). Watching TV, you can see how advertisers cunningly apply classical conditioning principles to consumers by showing ads that pair something pleasant (a US) with a product (a CS) in hopes that you, the viewer, will experience those positive feelings toward the product (CR). You might have seen that talking baby (US) trying to get viewers to sign up and buy stocks through E*TRADE (CS). Advertisers continue to exploit classical conditioning principles—for instance, through the technique of product placement, or what is known as embedded marketing. This is how embedded marketing works. Viewing a TV show or movie, you notice that a character is drinking a par- ticular brand of soft drink or eating a particular type of cereal. ©Consumer Trends/Alamy Stock Photo By placing their products in the context of a show or movie you like, advertisers are hoping that your positive feelings about the show, movie plot, or a character (the UR) carry over to their product (the CS). Sure, it may seem like a long shot—but all they need to do is enhance the chances that, say, navi- gating through a car dealership or a grocery store, you will feel attracted to their product. Consider Sheldon from Big Bang Theory freaking out after handling a snake and shrieking, “Purell! Purell! Purell!” and the characters on Modern Family using iPads. Embedded market- ing is also in evidence in many films. In the recent James Bond film, Casino Royale, 007 wore an Omega watch. Beats speakers were displayed prominently in a Transformers movie. And if you catch a rerun of the syndicated comedy The Office, you might recognize that Jim classically conditioned Dwight Schrute with breath mints, modeling Pavlov’s work, as you can check out on YouTube (search for The Office, Pavlov’s Theory). This pop culture moment explicitly demonstrated classical conditioning while also using classical conditioning in prod- uct placement for those curiously strong mints, Altoids. with a conditioned response (CR) that is the opposite of the unconditioned response (UR). For instance, if the drug (the US) leads to an increase in heart rate (the UR), the CR might be a drop in heart rate. The CS—the previously neutral stimulus—serves as a warning that the drug is coming, and the CR in this case is the body’s compensation for the drug’s effects (Figure 4). In this situation the conditioned response works to decrease the effects of the unconditioned stimulus, making the drug experience less intense. Some drug users try to prevent habituation by varying the physical location of where they take the drug. This aspect of drug use can play a role in deaths caused by drug overdoses. How might classical conditioning be involved? A user typically takes a drug in a particular setting, such as a bathroom, and acquires a conditioned response to this location (Siegel, 2016). Because of classical conditioning, as soon as the drug user walks into the bathroom, his Cl a s s ic a l C on d it ion in g // 175 FIGURE 4 Drug Habituation Classical US CS CR conditioning is involved in drug habituation. As a result of conditioning, the drug user needs to take more of the drug to get the same effect as before the conditioning. Moreover, if the user takes the drug without the usual conditioned stimulus or + stimuli—represented in the middle panel by the bathroom and the drug tablets—overdosing is likely. (pills): ©Thinkstock/Jupiterimages; (glass): ©Olga Miltsova/ The psychoactive drug is Appearance of the drug tablets The body prepares to receive the Shutterstock; (woman): ©Rick Gomez/Corbis an unconditioned stimulus and the room where the person drug in the room. Repeated (US) because it naturally takes the drug are conditioned pairings of the US and CS have produces a response in a stimuli (CS) that are paired with produced a conditioned person’s body. the drug (US). response (CR). or her body begins to prepare for and anticipate the drug dose in order to lessen the effect of the drug. However, if the user takes the drug in a location other than the usual one, such as at a rock concert, the drug’s effect is greater because no conditioned responses have built up in the new setting, and therefore the body is not prepared for the drug. In cases in which heroin causes death, researchers often have found that the individuals took the drug under unusual circumstances, at a different time, or in a different place relative to the context in which they usually took the drug. In these cases, with no CS signal, the body is unprepared for (and tragically overwhelmed by) the drug’s effects. This process can explain why at times, individuals die of an “overdose” when, in fact, the dose of the drug they have ingested would not have typically led to death (Siegel, 2016). 1. Pavlov’s dog salivates each time it C. having someone sneak up and finds out that a lot of people in his frat hears a bell. Now, after several trials scare him also were sick and that apparently ev- of salivating to the bell and not D. going to the zoo. eryone had picked up a stomach bug. receiving any food, the dog stops Consider this as an example of classi- 3. A dog has learned to associate a salivating. The explanation is that cal conditioning. Based on the descrip- small blue light coming on with being A. the dog realizes that the bell is not tion of Jake’s experience and your fed. Now, however, when a small light food. knowledge of classical conditioning, of any color comes on, the dog sali- B. extinction has occurred. which of the following would you predict vates. The reason is C. the contingency loop has been to happen in the future? A. extinction. disrupted. A. Jake will probably feel pretty sick B. discrimination. D. spontaneous recovery has not the next time he puts on his frat C. counterconditioning. been triggered. T-shirt. D. generalization. B. Jake will probably feel pretty sick 2. A young boy goes to the zoo for the the next time someone offers him first time with his father and sister. APPLY IT! 4. Jake, a college student, tamales. While he is looking at a bird display, goes out to eat with friends at a local C. Jake will probably feel pretty sick his sister sneaks up on him and star- Mexican restaurant and orders his favor- at the charity event. tles him. He becomes very fright- ite food, bean and cheese tamales. Jake D. Jake should have no trouble eat- ened, and now when he sees birds and his friends are all dressed in frater- ing tamales in the future, because outside or on TV, he cries. The un- nity T-shirts, and they spend the night he learned that a stomach bug, conditioned response is talking about an upcoming charity event. not the tamales, made him sick. A. fear. When he gets home, Jake feels horribly B. birds. ill and vomits through the night. Later he 3 Operant Conditioning Recall from early in the chapter that classical conditioning and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning, which involves learning that two events are connected. In classical conditioning, organisms learn the association between two stimuli (US and CS). Classical conditioning is a form of respondent behavior, behavior that occurs in automatic response to a stimulus such as a nausea-producing drug, and later to a conditioned stim- ulus such as sweet water that was paired with the drug. 176 // C H A P T E R 5 // Lea r ning  Classical conditioning explains how neu- tral stimuli become associated with unlearned, involuntary responses. Classical conditioning is not as effective, however, in explaining vol- untary behaviors such as a student’s studying hard for a test, a gambler’s playing slot machines in Las Vegas, or a dog’s searching for and finding his owner’s lost cell phone. Operant conditioning is usually much better than classical conditioning at explaining such voluntary behaviors. Defining Operant Conditioning operant Operant conditioning (or instrumental condi- conditioning or tioning) is a form of associative learning in instrumental which the consequences of a behavior change conditioning ©Juice Images Limited/Alamy Stock Photo A form of associa- the probability of the behavior’s occurrence. tive learning in The American psychologist B. F. Skinner which the conse- (1938) developed the concept of operant conditioning. Skinner chose the term operant to quences of a describe the behavior of the organism. According to Skinner, an operant behavior occurs behavior change spontaneously, and the consequences that follow such a behavior determine whether it the probability of the behavior’s oc- will be repeated. currence. Imagine, for example, that you spontaneously decide to take a different route while driving to campus one day. You are more likely to repeat that route on another day if you have a pleasant experience—for instance, arriving at school faster or finding a great new coffee place to try—than if you have a lousy experience such as getting stuck in traffic. In either case, the consequences of your spontaneous act influence People sometimes confuse whether that behavior happens again. "operant" and "classical" conditioning. Recall that contingency is an important aspect of classical conditioning Remember that operant conditioning in which the occurrence of one stimulus can be predicted from the presence of another one. Contingency also plays a key role in operant conditioning. is about what comes AFTER a For example, when a rat pushes a lever (behavior) that delivers food, the behavior. Classical conditioning is delivery of food (consequence) is contingent on that behavior. This principle really about what comes BEFORE of contingency helps explain why passersby should never praise, pet, or feed a an unconditioned stimulus. service dog while he is working (at least without asking first). Providing rewards during such times might interfere with the dog’s training. Thorndike’s Law of Effect Although Skinner emerged as the primary figure in operant conditioning, the experiments of E. L. Thorndike (1898) established the power of consequences in determining voluntary behavior. At about the same time that Pavlov was conducting classical conditioning experiments with salivating dogs, Thorndike, an American psychologist, was The law of effect lays the studying cats in puzzle boxes. Thorndike put a hungry cat inside a box and foundation for operant conditioning. placed a piece of fish outside. To escape from the box and obtain the food, the cat had to learn to open the latch inside the box. At first the cat made a What happens AFTER a given number of ineffective responses. It clawed or bit at the bars and thrust its paw behavior determines whether the through the openings. Eventually the cat accidentally stepped on the lever that behavior will be repeated. In released the door bolt. When the cat returned to the box, it went through the 1898? You go, Thorndike! Op era n t C on d it ion in g // 177  150 100 Time (seconds) 50 0 5 10 15 20 25 Number of trials FIGURE 5 Thorndike’s Puzzle Box and the Law of Effect (left) A box typical of the puzzle boxes Thorndike used in his experiments with cats to study the law of effect. Stepping on the treadle released the door bolt; a weight attached to the door then pulled the door open and allowed the cat to escape. After accidentally pressing the treadle as it tried to get to the food, the cat learned to press the treadle when it wanted to escape the box. (right) One cat’s learning curve over 24 separate trials. Notice that the cat escaped much more quickly after about five trials. It had learned the consequences of its behavior. same random activity until it stepped on the lever once more. On subsequent trials, the cat made fewer and fewer random movements until finally it immediately stepped on the law of effect lever to open the door (Figure 5). Thorndike’s resulting law of effect states that behaviors Thorndike’s law stating that followed by satisfying outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by frustrat- behaviors followed by posi- ing outcomes are weakened (Domjan, 2016). tive outcomes are strength- ened and that behaviors The law of effect is important because it presents the basic idea that the consequences followed by negative out- of a behavior influence the likelihood of that behavior’s recurrence. Quite simply, a behav- comes are weakened. ior can be followed by something good or something bad, and the probability of a behav- ior’s being repeated depends on these outcomes. As we now explore, Skinner’s operant conditioning model expands on this idea. Skinner’s Approach to Operant Conditioning Skinner believed that the mechanisms of learning are the same for all species. This conviction led him to study animals in the hope that he could discover the compo- nents of learning with organisms simpler than humans, including pigeons. During World War II, Skinner trained pigeons to pilot missiles. Although top navy officials just could not accept pigeons piloting their missiles in a war, Skinner congratulated himself on the degree of control he was able to exercise over the pigeons (Figure 6). Skinner and other behaviorists made every effort to FIGURE 6 Skinner’s Pigeon-Guided Missile Skinner study organisms under precisely controlled conditions wanted to help the military during World War II by using pigeons’ tracking behavior. A gold electrode covered the tip of the pigeons’ so that they could examine the connection between the beaks. Contact with the screen on which the image of the target operant behavior and the specific consequences in min- was projected sent a signal informing the missile’s control mechanism ute detail. One of Skinner’s creations in the 1930s to of the target’s location. A few grains of food occasionally given to control experimental conditions was the operant con- the pigeons maintained their tracking behavior. ditioning chamber, sometimes called a Skinner box 178 // C H A P T E R 5 // Lea r ning  (Figure 7). A device in the box delivered food pellets into a tray at random. After a rat became accustomed to the box, Skinner installed a lever and observed the rat’s behavior. As the hungry rat explored the box, it occasionally pressed the lever, and a food pellet was dispensed. Soon the rat learned that the consequences of pressing the lever were positive: It would be fed. Skinner achieved further control by sound- proofing the box to ensure that the experimenter was the only influence on the organism. In many of the experiments, the responses were mechanically recorded, and the food (the consequence) was dispensed automatically. These precau- tions aimed to prevent human error. Shaping Imagine trying to teach even a really smart dog how to These human errors might do the laundry. The challenge might seem insur- have included cheering the rat on or mountable, as it is quite unlikely that a dog will spon- rewarding him just because the taneously start putting the clothes in the washing FIGURE 7 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning machine. You could wait a very long time for such a experimenter felt bad for the Chamber B. F. Skinner conducts an operant feat to happen. It is possible, however, to train a dog hungry little guy. conditioning study in his behavioral laboratory. or another animal to perform highly complex tasks through The rat being studied is in an operant conditioning chamber, sometimes referred to as a Skinner box. the process of shaping. ©Nina Leen/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images Shaping refers to rewarding successive approximations of a shaping desired behavior (Abramson, Dinges, & Wells, 2016; Francis & Rewarding successive approximations of a desired Kanold, 2017). For example, shaping can be used to train a rat behavior. to press a bar to obtain food. When a rat is first placed in the conditioning box, it rarely presses the bar. Thus, the experimenter may start off by giving the rat a food pellet if it is in the same half of the cage as the bar. Then the experimenter might reward the rat’s behavior only when it is within 2 inches of the bar, then only when it touches the bar, and finally only when it presses the bar. Returning to the service dog, rather than waiting for the dog spontaneously to put the clothes in the washing machine, we might reward the dog for carrying the clothes to the laundry room and for bringing them closer and closer to the washing machine. Finally, we might reward the dog only when it gets the clothes inside the washer. Indeed, trainers use this type of shaping technique extensively in teaching animals to perform tricks. A dolphin that jumps through a hoop held high above the water has been trained to perform this behavior through shaping. Operant conditioning relies on the notion that a behavior is likely to be repeated if it is followed by a reward. A reasonable question is, what makes a reinforcer rewarding? Research examining this question tracks how positive events following a behavior are related to activation of dopamine receptors in the brain (Eaton, Libey, & Fetz, 2016; Steidl & others, 2017). reinforcement Principles of Reinforcement The process by Although Thorndike talked which a stimulus We noted earlier that a behavior can be followed by something good or some- about "satisfying" outcomes strengthening or an event (a thing bad. Reinforcement refers to those good things that follow a behavior. behaviors, Skinner took the need for reinforcer) follow- Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus or event (a reinforcer) fol- ing a particular satisfying states out of the equation. For lowing a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will behavior increases Skinner, if a stimulus increased a the probability that happen again. Such consequences of a behavior fall into two types, called the behavior will positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Both types of consequences behavior, it was reinforcing—no need to happen again. increase the frequency of a behavior. talk about how the animal feels. Op era n t C on d it ion in g // 179  POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT In positive positive reinforcement, the frequency of a behavior reinforcement The presentation increases because it is followed by the pre- of a stimulus fol- sentation of something that increases the lowing a given likelihood the behavior will be repeated. behavior in order For example, if someone you meet smiles to increase the at you after you say, “Hello, how are you?” frequency of that behavior. and you keep talking, the smile has rein- forced your talking. The same principle of positive reinforcement is at work when you teach a dog to “shake hands” by giv- ing it a piece of food when it lifts its paw. In contrast, in negative reinforcement negative the frequency of a behavior increases reinforcement The removal of a because it is followed by the removal of stimulus following something. For example, if your father a given behavior in Through operant conditioning, animal trainers can coax some amazing behaviors from nagged you to clean out the garage and order to increase their star performers. kept nagging until you cleaned out the the frequency of ©FilipSinger/EPA-EFE/REX/Shutterstock garage, your response (cleaning out the that behavior. garage) removed the unpleasant stimulus (your dad’s nagging). Taking an aspirin when you have a headache works the same way: A reduction of pain reinforces the act of taking an aspirin. Similarly, if your laptop is mak- ing an irritating buzzing sound, you might give it a good smack on the side, and if the buzzing stops, you are more likely to smack the set again if the buzzing resumes. Ending the buzzing sound rewards the laptop smacking. Even though it is labeled “negative,” this kind of reinforcement is about increasing the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. Notice that both positive and negative reinforcement involve rewarding behavior—but they do so in different ways. Positive reinforcement means following a behavior with the addition of something, and negative reinforcement means following a behavior with the removal of something. Remember that in this case, “positive” and “negative” have nothing to do with “good” and “bad.” Rather, they refer to processes in which something is given (positive reinforcement) or removed (negative reinforcement). Whether it is pos- itive or negative, reinforcement is about increasing a behavior. Figure 8 provides further Do It! examples to illustrate the distinction between positive and negative reinforcement. A special kind of response to negative reinforcement is avoidance Positive reinforcement and negative learning. Avoidance learning occurs when the organism learns that by avoidance reinforcement can be difficult concepts making a particular response, a negative stimulus can be altogether learning to grasp. The real-world examples and An organism’s avoided. For instance, a student who receives one bad grade might there- accompanying practice exercises on learning that it can after always study hard in order to avoid the negative outcome of bad altogether avoid a the following website should help to grades in the future. Even when the bad grade is no longer present, the negative stimulus clarify the distinction for you: http:// pattern of behavior sticks. Avoidance learning is very powerful in by making a par- psych.athabascau.ca/html/prtut/ ticular response. the sense that the behavior is maintained even in the absence of any aversive stimulus. For example, animals that have been trained to avoid a negative stimulus, such as an electrical shock, by jumping into a safe area may always thereafter gravitate toward the safe area, even when the risk of shock is no longer present. Experience with unavoidable negative stimuli can lead to a particular deficit in avoid- ance learning called learned helplessness, in which the organism, exposed to uncontrol- learned lable aversive stimuli, learns that it has no control over negative outcomes (Reznik & helplessness Through experi- others, 2017). Learned helplessness was first identified by Martin Seligman and his ence with unavoid- colleagues (Altenor, Volpicelli, & Seligman, 1979; Hannum, Rosellini, & Seligman, able aversive Yes, dog lovers, many have 1976), who found that dogs that were first exposed to inescapable shocks were stimuli, an organ- questioned the ethics of this research. later unable to learn to avoid those shocks, even when they could avoid them ism learns that it What do you think? (Seligman & Maier, 1967). This in