Chapter 4: The Spanish Era PDF

**CHAPTER 4: THE SPANISH ERA** **1. In Search of New Lands** The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries brought an era of worldwide exploration and expansion that resulted from the desire to gain new lands, power, and health for the explorers and their countries. In the last two centuries of the Middle...

**CHAPTER 4: THE SPANISH ERA** **1. In Search of New Lands** The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries brought an era of worldwide exploration and expansion that resulted from the desire to gain new lands, power, and health for the explorers and their countries. In the last two centuries of the Middle Ages (1300-1500), the Europeans, while regaining the Holy Land from the Muslims, were able to establish commerce with the Orient through trade routes. Spices like pepper, ginger, nutmeg, onions, and garlic were the most important items of trade from the East, owing to the desire of the Europeans to enhance the taste of food and to preserve meat during winter time. The fall of Constantinople (1453) and the emergence of the Ottoman Turks closed the former trade routes to the East, causing the monarchs and navigators of Europe to find new routes across the seas. The Portuguese were a few years ahead of the Spaniards in the discovery of new trade routes. Inspired by Prince Henry, the Navigator (1394-1460), Portuguese navigators sailed down the African coast to reach the East. In 1487, led by Bartolome Dias, the Portuguese rounded the Cape of Good Hope. A few years later, in 1498, Vasco de Gama reached Calicut, India, by sailing eastward from the cape. The end of the *reconquistas* (wars against the Moors) in 1492, paved the way for great voyages including the discovery of the New World (America) for Spain. Christopher Columbus, who had failed to convince the King of Portugal that he could reach the East by sailing westward, was able to get the support of the Spanish Crown. After these remarkable voyages, Portugal and Spain became keen rivals in colonizing new lands because of gold, spices, and other merchandise found in the Orient, as well as their religious zeal to proselytize the natives. European adventurers made daring voyages and sought new lands and riches. Great explorers were able to discover various routes for their expeditions, which marked the Age of Exploration (1492-1682). On May 3, 1493, Pope Alexander VI, attempting to settle the rivalry issued a papal bull known as the *Inter* *caetera*. The Pope decreed that the Spanish zone of exploration should be west of the imaginary line drawn north to south, 100 leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands. All lands east of the demarcation line should belong to Portugal. The demarcation line was drawn to identify Spanish and Portuguese spheres and exploration and conquest. The following year, the two kingdoms agreed in the Treaty of Tordesillas to move the demarcation line 370 leagues (about 1,100 miles) west of Cape Verde Islands and still be guided by the provisions of the papal bull. The revised treaty allowed Portugal to claim what is now Brazil while Spain was given the rest of the Americas (Perry, et al., 1988: 353). In 1505, Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521), a member of the nobility of Portugal sailed with a fleet carrying the first Portuguese viceroy to the East Indies in 1506 and from there, was sent to Malacca (Melaka) in the Malay Peninsula and the spice markets of Ambon and Banda in Western Indonesia. He was promoted to the rank of captain in 1510. He returned to Portugal in 1512. During those days, all explorations were done by latitude sailing by means of an astrolabe. Through observing wind directions and ocean tides, Magellan later conceived the idea of a passage to the west or around South America to reach the Moluccas or Spice Islands (islands of present-day Indonesia). While finding the chance to present his plan to King Manuel of Portugal, he fought against the Moors in Morocco in 1513. There he received his wounds that left him lame for life. After his return to Portugal, Magellan proposed to the king his plan to travel a westward route to the Moluccas. The king refused and even canceled his promotion probably because of charges of financial irregularities while he was in Morocco. Disgusted by the king\'s response, he renounced his Portuguese citizenship. He went to Spain in 1517. In his new found home, Magellan met influential persons who helped him get support for his plan to find a new route to the Spice Islands from King Charles I (later Holy Roman Emperor Charles V). One of them was Bishop Juan de Fonseca, the head of the Royal Council of the Indies (division in charge of overseas expeditions). Spurred by the competition to win against Portugal in obtaining high- priced spices, Spain commissioned Magellan to find a route to Moluccas by sailing west. Such passage would be beneficial to Spain for Portugal controlled the eastward route to the East Indies around Africa\'s Cape of Good Hope. The contract for the expedition was signed on March 28, 1518. Magellan was named captain general of the expedition. **2. Magellan\'s New Route to the East** Magellan left the port of San Lucar de Barrameda, Spain, on September 20, 1519 with five ships namely: *Trinidad, Concepcion, Santiago, San Antonio,* and *Victoria* together with about 250 men. The expedition intended to circumnavigate the earth in the service of Spain. Accompanying him were Fr. Pedro de Valderrama (fleet chaplain), Antonio Pigafetta (chronicler of the expedition), Duarte Barbosa (Magellan\'s brother-in-law), and his Malay slave Enrique of Malacca (acting as interpreter). The fleet sailed through familiar waters along the westcoast of Africa. They reached the Canaries on September 26. Crossing the Atlantic, they landed on the South American coast, now Pernambuco, Brazil, on November 29. Magellan continued the voyage, reaching Rio de Janeiro on December 13. He named it Santa Lucia, because he landed there on the saint\'s feast day. There they traded with the native Americans for provisions. The voyage continued at Rio de Plata. By the time they were at the tip of the South American continent, it was already winter. The snowstorms were in a headstrong. The men became apprehensive and asked Magellan that they all return to Spain. Magellan declined. Instead, he asked them to take courage. The ships took shelter from storms in Port San Julian (now in Argentina) in March 1520. Unknown to Magellan, some officers took into command the maneuvering of three ships, the *San Antonio*, the *Concepcion*, and the *Victoria*. The next day, Gaspar de Quesada, captain of the Concepcion, wrote to Magellan that he and others would not recognize his authority unless they return immediately to Spain. Still, Magellan refused to heed their petition Juan de Cartagena, Antonio de Coca, Juan Sebastian del Cano (called Elcano), and Gaspar de Quesada were found guilty of treason but pardoned. But Cartagena continued to plot again, this time with one of the priests, Pero Sanchez de Reina. They were probably jealous because the captain-general of this Spanish expedition was a Portuguese. Magellan had the two left off the coast of an unnamed island. With the first signs of spring, the exploratory voyage continued in search of a route to the Southern Sea (now Pacific Ocean). A strong typhoon had driven ashore and destroyed the smallest ship, *Santiago*. In August, the four ships went farther south and eventually, they came upon a strait, which Magellan called \"Strait of All Saints\" (now Strait of Magellan). Magellan sent the San Antonio to explore the southeast opening of the strait. Trinidad entered the southwest. Secretly, *San Antonio*, piloted by Esteban Gomez (a Portuguese), deserted on the night of November 20 and sailed back for Spain. The fleet reached the Southern Sea, which Magellan named Ocean Pacific because it was calm. Unfortunately, Magellan had underestimated the ocean\'s size. In the next five months, the ship was running out of supplies. Instead of biscuits, the men ate sawdust. They also started to eat leather rope guards and even rats. Many got sick with scurvy (a gum disease). A number of his men died. But Magellan and his men bravely sailed on and by March 6, 1521 they had reached an island in the Western Pacific. He called it *Islas Ladrones* (or Islands of Thieves, later to be named Marianas, in honor of Maria Ana of Austria, Queen Regent of Spain) because some of the native Chamorros had stolen a boat from the flagship. To stop them, Magellan ordered his men to fire their guns. **3. Voyage to the Philippines** From Ladrones Islands, Magellan\'s fleet went on their journey westward. At the dawn of Saturday, on March 16, 1521, they saw the towering heights of Samar and named the island *Islas de San Lazaro*, for it was the feast day of St. Lazarus. They stayed overnight off Suluan Island. The following day, they landed on the small uninhabited islet of Humипи (Homonhon) found at the mouth of Leyte Gulf and built two tents for the sick. On the third day after their arrival on March 18, they met nine natives from the neighboring island of Suluan who arrived in a boat. Seeing them as friendly people, Magellan gave them red caps, mirrors, combs, small bells, ivory, fine linen cloth, and other trifles. In return, the islanders gave them their cargo of bananas, fish, coconuts, and palm wine (*tuba*). On Holy Thursday, March 28, the fleet landed in another island called Mazaua, which could be Limasawa in Leyte or Masao in Butuan. Rajah Kolambu was rowed to where the Europeans were. At first, he refused to board Magellan\'s big ship. Finally, the rajah welcomed Magellan and visited him aboard his ship. He gave Magellan three porcelain jars of rice, while Magellan gave a red cap and a red-and-yellow robe. Subsequently, Magellan\'s men held a mock fight. The soldier in a suit of armor remained unhurt even after he was struck. Rajah Kolambu was fascinated and noted that one man in such attire was worth 100 fighters. These newcomers could help them win their battles. Thus, the rajah decided to seal their new friendship. Afterwards, he performed the *kasi kasi* or blood compact ceremony with Magellan on March 29, Good Friday. Pursuant to Republic Act No. 2733 dated June 19, 1960 Barangay Magallanes, Limasawa, Southern Leyte is the site of the first Christian mass in the Philippines. In 1980 the National Historical Institute (NHI) sponsored a workshop for historians to determine the site of the first mass in the Philippines. They concluded it was Limasawa. They based their findings from the evidence presented in 1800 by Carlo Amoretti, a *conservator* in Ambrosiana Library in Milan. Amoretti said that Mazaua where Magellan landed in 1521 and the island of Limasawa in the book written by Father Francisco Combes are one and the same. This idea was supported by known writers in history, which include Father Pablo Pastells, S.J., Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera, Jaime de Veyra, and James Robertson. Noted historian Dr. Sonia M. Zaide presented the evidence for Masao rather than Limasawa as the site of the first recorded mass in the Philippines. First, in all primary sources including the diary of Antonio Pigafetta, the chronicler of Magellan\'s voyage, the name of the place was Mazaua. Limasawa has four syllables and begins with another letter. Second, according to primary records, the expedition traveled 20 to 25 leagues from Homonhon, the first landing point. If they had been to Limasawa Island, the distance is only 14.6 leagues or one-half of that length. Third, the distance to Cebu from Mazaua according to Pigafetta was 35 leagues (140 miles). The distance from Limasawa to Cebu is only 80 miles. Fourth, it was mentioned that the king came to their ship in a *balanghai*. Butuan is now the site of af least nine excavated *balanghai* relics, by contrast, Limasawa has no significant archaeological relics or *balanghai* tradition. Fifth, the Western explorers excited at the abundance of gold in Mazaua, for that was the main currency at that time. Both archaeological relics and the gold mines today attested to the abundance of gold in the Agusan Valley. The site of the first mass in the Philippines was first mentioned by Maximilian Transylvanus in his *De* *Moluccis*\... in 1523. He interviewed the survivors of the Magellan expedition and noted that they landed in Messana (at times written as Massana), where the mass was first officiated. Due to numerous copies of *De* *Moluccis* in Europe, the Italian manuscript of Antonio Pigafetta (the chronicler of the expedition) was deferred in printing. In 1536, Gian Battista Ramusio also wrote a chronicle about the voyage of Magellan based on the Pigafetta manuscript. He pointed out that it was in Butuan where the first mass in the Philippines took place. When Father Francisco Colin, S.J. wrote a book about the spread of Christianity in the Philippines, he could not exactly determine the site of the first mass in the archipelago. From the Ramusio version it was in Butuan, while from the writings of Antonio de Herrera (based from accounts of Andres de San Martin) it was in Mazaua. Finally, Father Colin wrote that it was in Limasawa where the first mass in the Philippines was officiated. In 1667, Father Francisco Combes mentioned in his *Historia* *de* *Mindanao*\... description of the voyage of Magellan and his Armada de Molucca. He mentioned the word Limasaua, which never existed in any primary source about the Magellan expedition. It was William Henry Scott who was able to identify that it was the Ramusio version that first mentioned Mazaua in Butuan. From the findings of Scott and Vicente C. de Jesus, they had come into conclusion that the inclusion of Limasawa in the voyage of Magellan may be attributed to Colin (with his Dimasaua) and Combes (with his Limasawa). For Scott, de Jesus and the NHI, the eyewitness account of Gines de Mafra, the Spanish mariner should be considered in determining the location of Mazaua. Mafra was the only navigator who reached Mazaua twice, first in 1521 in the Magellan\'s expedition and in 1543 in the Villalobos expedition. Andres de San Martin gave Mafra some important documents before he was killed by the warriors of Rajah Humabon in Cebu after the battle of Mactan. Martin was an astrologer and one of the finest mariners during the Renaissance. He died in the Cebu massacre that took place on May 1, 1521. Mafra held the documents given to him by Martin for five years. These documents were confiscated by the Portuguese and were kept in the Lisbon archives. Finally, the documents were transferred to Madrid at the time when Portugal became part of Spain (1580-1640). Based on the Mafra accounts, from Homonhon, Magellan and his men traveled westward, southwest to the tip of Seilani (Panaon) to avoid the Northeast monsoon. (From Panaon, Limasawa is in the northwest direction). According to Mafra, Mazaua has a circumference of 3-4 leagues, equivalent to 9-12 n.m., while Limasawa has a circumference of 2.0313 n.m. Mafra mentioned that Magellan and his men were able to reach Mindanao. Mazaua is 45 n.m. south of Surigao. The western part of the island is a perfect harbor during the Northeast monsoon. Mazaua has two hilly areas, Pinamangculan at Dalindingan, as drawn in the map of Pigafetta. Planted near the foot of the hills were rice, coconut, and fruits. There was gold in the area. Houses were described as stilted. On Easter Sunday, March 31, 1521, a mass was held on Mazaua\'s shore with Reverend Father Pedro de Valderrama officiating. At sundown, Magellan, in the presence of Spaniards and Filipinos, planted a large wooden cross on the summit of a hill overlooking the sea. He named the country the *Islas de San Lazaro.* On April 7, 1521, Magellan together with King Kolambu and the Spanish and native fleets landed on Sugbu (now Cebu). On the same day, Humabon made a blood compact with Magellan after the latter had won his trust and friendship. Asked who would succeed him, Rajah Humabon told Magellan that he had no sons, only daughters. His nephew who had married his daughter was therefore the crown prince. Rajah Humabon added that parents were no longer honored in their old age and instead their children commanded them. Magellan explained to the Cebuano chieftain the Christian teaching about honoring one\'s parents. This confounded Rajah Humabon. Soon, he sought to be baptized as a Christian. On Sunday, April 14, 1521, a mass on the shore of Cebu was held with Rajah Humabon and his people attending the ceremony. After the mass, Magellan planted a huge wooden cross and gave Queen Juana, wife of Rajah Humabon, an image of the Child Jesus as a gift. There were about 800 Filipinos who participated in the mass and underwent ritual baptism. As for Humabon (renamed Carlos), Magellan made him the king\'s representative in Cebu and promised to unite the local chieftains under his authority. Magellan likewise tried to impose Christianity and Spanish sovereignty on local chieftains. Rajah Humabon and Datu Zula of Mactan welcomed the Spaniards, but not Lapulapu, another chieftain of Mactan. Lapulapu\'s real name was Cali Pulacu as written by Carlos Calao, a Chinese-Spanish poet in the 17^th^ century in his poem, *Que Dios Le Perdone* (That God May Forgive Him). This was a result of the research of Prof. Guillermo Zobel Prize awardee. Lapulapu refused to accept the new political system and pay tribute. He decided to break away from Rajah Humabon. To teach him a lesson, Magellan invaded Mactan on April 27, 1521. He led an army of 60 steel-clad Spaniards in three vessels and 1,000 Cebuano warriors in 30 boats. He fold Rajah Humabon and his men to stay on their boats, watch how the Europeans fight. Magellan had misjudged the fighting skill of Lapulapu and his men. The Mactan warriors repulsed the Spanish force with their spears and bamboo stakes. They aimed their spears at the unshielded legs of the Europeans. The Spaniards were forced to go back to their boats. Magellan was wounded in the battle. A poisoned arrow hit his right leg and then a bamboo spear struck his face. Lapulapu and his fighters pounced and killed him. The remaining Europeans retreated and left the body of their captain behind. The Battle of Mactan was a scandalous defeat for the Spaniards for they were not able to prove themselves better in combats. On May 1, the natives of Cebu carried out the plan to massacre them. While the Europeans were attending a banquet prepared for them by Rajah Humabon, the warriors attacked them. Duarte Barbosa, Juan Serrano, and 27 other Spaniards were killed. The remaining members of the expedition were forced to flee the islands before the Cebuanos could kill them all. They burned the ship *Concepcion* for lack of men to operate the vessel. With two ships left - *Trinidad* and *Victoria*, they continued their voyage to Moluccas. On November 8, 1521, they finally landed in Tidore, an island in Moluccas. They were able to secure a rich cargo of spices. The survivors decided that the Trinidad, led by Gomez de Espinosa, would sail back to Spain by crossing the Pacific to Panama, while the Victoria, under Juan Sebastian del Cano\'s command would sail via Cape of Good Hope, but on lower latitudes to avoid the Portuguese. The *Historia* crossed the Indian Ocean, rounded the Cape of Good. Hope and finally reached San Lucar, Spain on September 6, 1522, with only 18 survivors. The voyage around the world lasted 2 years, 11 months, and 16 days. As for the crew of the San Antonio (the ship that has deserted the expedition), they had been imprisoned until Elcano\'s return. They were tried and convicted. Pigafetta\'s story of the expedition spread. Shortly thereafter, the geographers adopted new dimensions of the Earth and the wider scope of the Southern Sea (Pacific Ocean). The voyage enhanced their knowledge about the existence of other islands in the Pacific and the Philippines. It also confirmed that the earth is round and that it is really possible to sail around the world since the world\'s oceans are connected. The cargo of cloves sold for such a high price that it was more than sufficient to pay for the expenses of Magellan\'s expedition. As a reward, the Spanish Crown granted Elcano a proud motto for his shield, Primus Circumdedisti Me (you circumnavigated me first). In unwritten history, it was really an Asian who first circumnavigated the world ahead of the Europeans. He is no other than Enrique of Malacca who acted as interpreter for Magellan. From Malacca, he was able to join the voyage of the Portuguese after he was taken by Magellan to be his aide, cruising across the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean and reached Portugal. When he became part of the Magellan\'s expedition, he was able to sail from Spain via Atlantic Ocean, reached the tip of South America and across the Pacific Ocean then finally returned to Asia, particularly the Philippines. Magellan\'s expedition paved the way for Spain\'s expansion to the Orient. Driven by the thrill of adventure and the reward of gold and spiritual dispensation, the conquistadores took the risks of the journey. The first post-Magellan expedition (1525), led by Captain Garcia Jofre de Loaysa sailed with seven ships and 450 men. After crossing the Strait of Magellan, the vessels were dispersed by a storm. Unfortunately, Loaysa got ill. They served him broiled rat, the traditional treatment for constipation. He did not recover. Eventually he died. His men failed to reach the Philippines. Sebastian Cabot, son of Venetian explorer John Cabot, headed the second expedition in 1526 with four ships and 250 men. They failed to find the Strait of Magellan. In 1527, Alvaro Saavedra Ceron, cousin of Hernando Cortes of Mexico, together with 110 men constituted the first expedition to the Philippines from the Viceroyalty in Mexico (New Spain). Three ships were set out to investigate what had happened to the two earlier expeditions and rescue any survivors. Only one ship, the *Florida*, reached Surigao in Northeastern Mindanao but failed to colonize. They were able to rescue several survivors from the first two expeditions in Tidore, Moluccas. Loaded with spices, the *Florida* attempted to return to Spain but strong winds drove her back. Saavedra Ceron tried the second and third time to sail against strong winds. He fell ill and died. His successor also failed to make a return trip. Finally, they decided to surrender to the Portuguese. In 1542, King Charles I sent another expedition. This was to reassert the claims of Spain to the islands, which is part of the Eastern Hemisphere. Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, the Eastern Hemisphere was reserved to Portuguese colonization. However, with the Treaty of Zaragoza in 1529, a new demarcation line was fixed at 297½ leagues cast of Moluccas. Portugal gained the rights of ownership over all the lands on the west of the line, while Spain gained the right of ownership over all the lands found on the east of the line. Spain sold the Moluccas to Portugal for 350,000 gold ducats (\$630,000), which lay within the Portuguese sphere of influence and claimed ownership over the Philippines then known as Islas del Poniente (the Sunset Islands). He instructed Ruy Lopez de Villalobos to command a fleet of six ships and around 400 men. He exhorted Villalobos to avoid any of the Spice Islands in their voyage to Islas del Poniente. Villalobos reached Baganga Bay in Eastern Mindanao on February 2, 1543 after three months of sailing. He named Mindanao Caesarea Caroli, or the imperial island of Charles. Searching for food, they reached the southern island of Sarangani, which Villalobos renamed Antonia in honor of Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza of Mexico. Some of his men went as far as Leyte, which they renamed Felipina, in honor of the future king Philip II of Spain. Later, the name Felipinas was given to all the islands. Villalobos also failed to colonize Mindanao. He died in the Moluccas, consoled by St. Francis Xavier, acclaimed as the Apostle of the Indies. King Charles I of Spain abdicated his royal crown after getting weary of far ranging duties brought about by his scattered dominion. His son Philip II succeeded as ruler of the Netherlands in 1555 and in Spain in 1556. During the reign of King Philip II, Spain was at the height of its power. He wrote to Mexican Viceroy Velasco ordering him to prepare an expedition for the conquest of the Philippines. The command of this expedition was given to Miguel Lopez de Leagazpi (1505- 1572), a soldier, lawyer, and administrator. Since the Mexican government was then in the brink of bankruptcy, Legazpi spent his own resources to finance the expedition. Legazpi and his fleet, consisting of four ships with 380 men, left Nativided, Mexico, on November 19, 1564 (some say November 20, a Monday). Besides royal officials and crew, five Augustinian friars joined the expedition. Legazpi was accompanied by Father Andres de Urdaneta (survivor of the Loaysa expedition), and Captain Felipe de Saleedo (Legazpi\'s grandson), Guido de Lavezaris (survivor of the Villalobos expedition), and Melchor de Legazpi (Legazpi\'s son). The fleet stopped in Guam, and there they obtained fresh water and supplies. On February 13, 1565, Legazpi and his men anchored near the island of Cebu. Due to Cebuano opposition, they sailed to the neighboring islands and landed in Samar. Legazpi made a blood compact with Urrao, a friendly chief, on February 22. They proceeded to Limasawa and were received by a young chieftain named Bankaw. Later, Legazpi landed in Bohol and befriended two native kings. Sikatuna and Sigala. On March 16, 1565, Legazpi and Sikatuna made a blood compact. A few days later, Legazpi and Gala did a similar pact. On April 27, 1565, Legazpi arrived in Cebu and hit the shore. Rajah Tupas and his Cebuano warriors challenged the enemy forces but were overpowered by the Spaniards. Soon, the natives burned their houses and retread to the uplands. The next day, April 28, one of Legazpi\'s men, a Greek sailor named Mermeo (others say Juan de Camuz) discovered the image of the Sto. Niño in one of the houses. Viewing it as a sign of God\'s approval, Legazpi named the first settlement Ciudad del Santissimo Nombre de Jesus (City of the Most Holy Name of Jesus), in honor of the sacred image. The statue can be found in the present Augustinian Church of the Holy Child. The earliest Spanish settlement was in the form of a triangle. The two sides face the sea and the third fronts the land. The settlement was surrounded by fences. Wells were dug for stable water supply. A church for the Augustinian Fathers was erected. In this church, the historic image of the Child Jesus was kept. One day, a soldier, Pedro de Araña, went out alone from the camp. He was speared to death. In retaliation, a unit was sent to grab captives, one of them a niece of Rajah Tupas of Cebu. Upon learning this, Legazpi sent her nursemaid to inform Rajah Tupas that the hostages were free to go home, on the condition that he had to come for a talk. Tupas did not heed the invitation of Legazpi, but Tamuyan the girl\'s father came with six men. Tamuyan offered himself as a slave in place of his daughter but Legazpi assured him the freedom of his daughter without making him subservient to the Spaniards. The father was stunned to see his daughter dressed as befitted her rank. He knew that captives taken in war were not given noble treatment. Moved by their kindheartedness, Tamuyan accepted Legazpi\'s friendship. He promised to convince his brother Tupas to accept Spanish good will. After a few more days, convinced that Legazpi was sincere with his words, Rajah Tupas accepted Legazpi\'s Friendship. **4. The Spanish Conquest of the Islands** Legazpi tried to win Rajah Tupas and the people of Cebu through the policy of attraction, inviting them to return, rebuild their homes, and live in peace with them. With the help of Cid Hamal (Sidamit), a Muslim Malay, Legazpi succeeded. The Cebuanos paid yearly tribute to the king of Spain and recognized him as their sovereign. Legazpi promised Spanish protection. When Legazpi began on his conversation efforts, most Filipinos were still practicing a form of polytheism, although some had converted to Islam. The Augustinian missionaries were assiduously spreading the Christian faith. The first Cebuano convert was Jandulaman, a widowed niece of Tupas, later on named Isabel in honor of Isabel Garces, Legazpi\'s deceased wife. After her baptism, she married Master Andres, a Greek member of Legazpi\'s expedition. Fray Diego Herrera officiated the wedding, the first Christian marriage on Philippine soil. Rajah Tupas also accepted baptism. Legazpi stood as the godfather. He was named Felipe, in honor of Philip II. His son, Pinsuncan was likewise baptized and was named Carlos. The natives followed the same. In 1569, Legazpi transferred to Panay due to meager food provisions in Cebu. Meanwhile, he sent his grandson back to Mexico with his first reports to the Spanish King. On the bank of the Panay River, the second Spanish settlement was founded. Due to the continuing apostolic work of Fr. Juan de Alba and other Augustinian missionaries, the people became friendly to Legazpi. Two chiefs of Panay, Datus Macabaog and Madidong became Christians. In 1570, Legazpi sent his grandson, Juan de Salcedo who arrived in Cebu from Mexico in 1567, to Mindoro to punish the Moro pirates who plundered upon Panay\'s villages. With 30 Spaniards and several hundreds of Visayans, Salcedo destroyed the Moro forts in Ilin and Lubang (islets near Mindoro). On May 8, 1570, Marshal Martin de Goiti and his men left Panay. With a force of 120 Spaniards and 600 Visayans, they explored the Pansipit River in Batangas. Native volunteers who had already made friends with the Spaniards joined Goiti\'s men to avenge the harm done to them by hostile neighboring villages. From the bay, Goiti saw on the south bank of the Pasig River a wall protecting a port. He sent his interpreter ashore to invite the local chief to a conference, which Rajah Matanda and his nephew Rajah Sulayman (or Soliman) accepted. Rajah Sulayman led Goiti to a house and they sealed their new alliance with the traditional kasi kasi. The Maynilad chief was willing to befriend the Spaniards but would not submit to Spanish sovereignty and pay tribute to the Spanish king. This lack of trust led to an armed clash between them. Goiti landed his 80 fighters against Sulayman\'s fort, (where Fort Santiago stands today) and ordered his men to destroy the artillery. Sulayman defended his kingdom from the Spaniards who took the offensive. A bloody hand-to-hand battle ensued until the Manilans turned their backs as flames began to engulf their houses. Sulayman and his warriors retreated across the river. Goiti and his men captured Maynilad on the 24th of May and seized some cannons that Panday Pira had made for Sulayman. After the battle, Goiti returned to Panay. He told Legazpi about the rich kingdom of Maynilad, a trading center where Chinese, Borneans, Siamese, and other foreign merchants engaged in. from thereon, Legazpi decided to colonize Maynilad. He left Panay and reached Manila Bay in the middle of April 1571, with a stronger expedition consisting of 27 vessels, 280 Spaniards, and 600 Visayan allies. Lakandula, king of Tondo and Sulayman\'s uncle, realized that it was useless to resist the Spanish forces. He welcomed Legazpi and persuaded his nephew Sulayman to make peace with Legazpi. On May 19, 1571, Legazpi took possession of Maynilad in the name of King Philip II of Spain. Bambalito, a Pampango warlord from Macabebe, wanted to resist the Spanish forces in Maynilad. He conferred with Lakandula and Sulayman to support his cause. The two former native rulers did not want to join him since they had already made peace with Legazpi. However, a son and two nephews of Lakandula and some of Sulayman\'s warriors joined his war camp in Navotas. On June 3, 1571, Bambalito\'s more than 2,000 fighters in 40 caracoas (boats) from Hagonoy, Macabebe, and other Pampanga villages sailed into Bankusay\'s creek, off the north shore of Manila Bay. They fought Marshal Goiti\'s forces in this furious naval battle. Bambalito perished at the height of this bloody fight. His men were routed. The rest paddled frantically away. Ten native boats were captured. On June 24, 1571, the Feast Day of St. John the Baptist, Legazpi proclaimed Manila as the capital of the Philippines (celebrated as the Manila\'s Foundation Day). He called the city Nueva Castilla, because he had been told that there had been an old fort or castle on the site. On the same day, the city government was established with a cabildo or city council and a court. Years later, King Philip II, by his Royal Decree of June 1, 1574, named Manila, Insigne y Siempre Leal Ciudad (Distinguished and Ever Loyal City) and by his Royal Decree of March 20, 1596, conferred a beautiful coat-of-arms on this city. On August 20, 1572, Legazpi, the first Spanish governor and adelantado (title given to those who personally funded their expeditions) of the Philippines, died of heart attack. Guido de Lavezaris succeeded and stayed in post until 1575. Captain Juan de Salcedo, grandson of Leagazpi, subdued the region along Laguna de Bay: discovered the gold mines of Paracale across the mountains; and pacified Ilocandia and Cagayan in 1572. He founded Villa Fernandina de Vigan in honor of Prince Ferdinand, son of King Philip II who died at the age of four. In recognition of Salcedo\'s military services, the Spanish Crown gave him encomienda in Ilocos. From Vigan, Salcedo explored the tip of Luzon. In 1573, he conquered Camarines, Albay, and Catanduanes. The Bicolanos refused to yield to them. The natives used their arrows against the Spanish forces, however they hurriedly withdrew for their safety after Salcedo fired his guns. The Philippines was a crown colony considering she was under Spanish domination. From the beginning of Spanish rule in 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was a dependency of Mexico. The Mexican viceroy, in the name of the Spanish King, administered the country. After the independence of Mexico from Spain in 1821, the Philippines came to be directly governed from Madrid. In 1863, the Overseas Ministry (Ministerio de Ultramar) took over the functions of the Council of the Indies (Consejo de Indias). The colonial code titled Recopilacion de leyes de los reynos de las Indias (Compilation of Laws on Royal Lands in the Indies) popularly known as Leyes de Indias (Laws of the Indies) issued in 1680, was used by Spain to rule its extensive possessions. It was on November 16, 1568 when King Philip 11 issued instructions to Legazpi to establish cities and towns and create encomiendas to he distributed to deserving soldiers. In the first three decades of Spanish rule, the Philippines was divided into encomiendas. With a cross in one hand and a sword in the other, the Spanish conquistadores imposed upon the Filipinos this feudal system of administration. The sword encomienda comes from the verb encomendar meaning \"to commend or to commit to one\'s care.\" Originally, an encomienda was a feudal institution used in Spain to reward deserving generals and conquerors during Spanish wars of recovery of territory from the Moors. The earliest encomenderos in the West Indies were delegated with the power to collect tribute and to use the personal services of the inhabitants of their encomiendas. This feudal grant was introduced by the Spanish Crown for the combined purposes of rewarding deserving Spaniards and attracting others to settle in the colonies. Permanent settlement of the Spanish soldiers assured the defense of the colonies. This also facilitated the conversation of the natives to the Catholic faith. Encomienda in the Philippines was not a land grant. It was more of an administrative unit for the purpose of exacting tribute from the natives and to use the personal services of the King\'s vassals in the encomienda. The encomenderos undertook ways to look after the well-being of his people and to educate them with Spanish norms of conduct. In the domain of relations, the encomienda had been considered as a kind of benevolent paternalism. In reality, the encomienda was looked upon by its beneficiaries as a pretense for slavery. Tributes were collected in cash or in kind. From the total collection, not exceeding one- fourth of this went to the encomenderos and the rest to the friars as well as the government. The cabeza de harangay (former datu) collected the tribute and gave it to the encomendero. The Laws of the Indies provided that the encomenderos must not own a house in the native settlements, within their encomiendas to avoid the commission of abuses. Governor Gomez Perez Dasmariñas, as commanded by King Philip II, urged the encomenderos to reside near their wards to promote the latter\'s welfare. However, this arrangement became an opportunity for the encomenderos to enrich themselves. The unlawful exaction of numerous services coupled with greed and cruelty made the lives of the natives miserable. The early Spanish friars took the side of the exploited people because they saw that the colonizers had failed to instruct their people in the Catholic religion. The national economy, founded upon the medieval concept of master and slave, paved for the introduction of a class of landed aristocracy, while the broad masses lived in distress.. Haciendas and encomiendas are not the same though both were forms of colonial. appropriation. The demands or exactions of an encomendero were incidental to his position as representative of the King, thus, he exacted tribute and drafted labor. The hacendero on the other hand, under the fiction of partnership (with the tenant as companion or kasama), had the right of inheritance and free disposition of the land. Because of the abuses perpetrated by the encomenderos, the encomiendas were replaced by a system of provincial government. There were were two types of provincial administrations: the alcaldia-mayor or the province, where peace had been established by the Spanish government placed under a civil official called alcalde-mayor, and the corregimientos or territories that had not been completely pacified under the charge of corregidores or politico-military governors. Tomas de Comyn, a Spanish social scientist, nevertheless described the office of the alcalde- mayor as a model of graft, corruption, and inefficiency brought about by inexperienced men being assigned to govern the provinces. Some of them had little or no background at all to execute their varied responsibilities. The province was divided into towns or pueblo, which were administered by gobernadorcillos. The office of the gobernadorcillo was open to Filipinos. This local position. was at first coccupied by pre-colonial chieftains and their descendents and later elected by an electoral board composed of the outgoing gobernadorcillo and twelve members of the principalia. The principalia (social and political aristocracy) referred to the prominent land- owning and propertied citizens who could read, write, and speak Spanish. Each town had several villages or barangays placed directly under the cabezas de barangay. This position remained an appointive office. The king appointed the governor general and other colonial officials administering the country. The governor general was the chief executive as well as the commander-in-chief of the military forces in the colony. Aside from this, he was also the vice-royal patron wherein he has the power to recommend priests in parishes, and the authority to intervene in controversies between religious authorities. The governor general could also reject or suspend the implementation of any royal decree or law from Spain with his cumplase power, if in his opinion, the conditions in the colony did not justify its implementation. The office of the governor general was oftentimes bought or granted as a favor. Since it generally involved a short tenure of office, averaging two years and ten months, and in the 19 century even shorter, the governor general oftentimes became eager in accumulating wealth before his term of office expired. However, checks to gubernatorial powers were made possible through the following: first, the Audiencia Real or Royal Audiencia established in 1583 to act as the Supreme Court of the colony also served as advisory body to the governor and audited the expenditures of the government; second, the residencia, which was a judicial institution headed by the incoming governor general to conduct a trial of an outgoing governor general and other Spanish officials for the purpose of punishing those guilty of corruption, but the case may be appealed to the King of clemency; third, the visitador-general, who was the investigator sent by the King or an official dispatched by the Council of Indies in Spain to check the behavior of the high officials in the colony; fourth, the Archbishop and clergy who were appointed by the Pope upon the recommendation of the King; and fifth, subordinate public officials and influential private citizens. The counterbalance efforts of the aforementioned nevertheless proved ineffectual in reprimanding corrupt administrators, for it was quite easy for them to bribe the officials conducting the investigation. They could even seek for the revocation of the decisions given by the investigating officials through political influence in the country or in Spain. The local officials as well as the Spanish high officials became the main instruments of \"pacification.\" The subjugation of the natives became complete after they have agreed to pay the tribute. One tribute corresponds to one family, consisting of husband, wife, and minor children. Half of the tribute has to be paid by an unmarried man or woman. One tribute is equivalent to eight (8) reales or one peso. It may be paid in money or in kind like rice, honey, corn, and the like. In 1851, it was increased to 12 reales or one peso and a half. In 1884, the cedula tax replaced the tribute. Exempted from paying the tribute were as follows: incumbent gobernadorcillos, cabezas and their families, government employees, soldiers with distinguished service, descendants of Lakandula, a few other native chieftains, choir members, sacristans, porters of the churches, and government witnesses. Encomenderos often had to send soldiers to collect the tribute by force. Nonpayment of tribute meant torture or imprisonment. Sometimes houses were burned or looted by these soldiers as punishment for the natives\' defiance. Other natives just fled to the mountains to escape punishment. The Filipinos hated the tribute for it was a symbol of subjugation to Spain. Likewise, it resulted to Spanish abuses especially by tribute collectors. Oppositions to colonial authority became quite difficult. Although the Spaniards constituted a small number in the country, they had conscripted natives from different regions to put down revolts in other regions to remain in power. Polo or forced labor instituted in 1580 was another form of pacifying the natives. Male Filipinos between 16 to 60 years of age rendered manual service for the country for the purpose of building ships, churches, roads, and other forms of infrastructure. The polista or worker has to work 40 days a year in the labor pool. In 1884, forced labor was reduced to 15 days a year. To be excluded from the polo, one has to pay falla (exemption fee), which only a few Filipinos could actually pay. The chieftains and their eldest sons were also excused from forced labor.. Polo led to the abandonment of the fields, separation from families or homes, as well as illness and death for some. The alcaldes often drafted hundreds of men, more than what was necessary for woodcutting and then pocketed the money, which must be paid for the polistas. Bandala, which was instituted in the first half of the 17th century by Governor General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera was another way to overpower the Filipinos. This refers to the assignment of annual quotas to each province for the compulsory sale of products to the government. Due to lack of funds, the government issued promissory notes in exchange for the goods. Nonpayment on the part of the government meant seizure of products. The system meant virtual confiscation of products for the government that was usually out of money: promissory notes were first given in exchange for the goods. The political condition in the Philippines was worsened with the union of Church and State. The friars, like the government officials, execised political, economic, and other non- spiritual powers. They controlled the educational system as well as the collection of taxes and the conscription of natives into the army. They even controlled municipal elections and censored plays and reading materials. So extensive was the so-called friar interference in the country that in the 19th century. Filipino propagandists demanded their expulsion. **5. Towards the Hispanization of the Natives** The Spaniards integrated into the Filipino society their religion, language, customs, arts. and sciences. The Church and State inseparably carried out Spanish policy in the country. When the Spaniards came into the country, they destroyed the carved idols out of wood and stone because these artworks were regarded as abominable to the faith. To a great extent, the Spanish Catholic missionaries were able to remodel Filipino culture and society. The Spanish authorities clustered the Filipino population into village settlements where they could more easily be instructed. Since most secular colonial officials had no intention of living far from home, the friars took on the roles as the King\'s representatives and interpreters. of government policies in the countryside. Spanish urbanization was centered in the city of Manila, within a walled city called Intramuros. Infrastructure showing Spanish domination in the country, such as massive colonial churches, convents, schools, roads, bridges, and the bahay na bato at kahoy (Antillian stone and wood houses) were constructed. Initially, buildings during the Spanish era were of thatch and bamboo. After accidental fires that hit some of them, stones, wood, bricks, and tiles were used for construction. Structurally, the bahay na bato at kahoy also known as bahay na mestiza (or mixed, because wood and stone were blended together), perpetuated the features of the pre-Hispanic bahay na kubo. The ground floor was used for storage and for parking vehicles. Habitation took place upstairs with specific rooms for guests (azotea and sala), dining (comedor), cooking (cocina), and sleeping (cuarto). The Spaniards imposed the feudal system and created towns and estates by converging the people through reduccion, referring to the resettlement of inhabitants in Spanish-style poblaciones or at least-bajo de las campanas (within hearing distance of the church bells). The Spanish model for a poblacion (town center) was organized around a rectangular plaza, with the church (the most important structure of the plaza complex) and convent on one side, bounded by the tribunal or municipio, and by the houses of Spanish officials and principales (elite). The presence of principalia residences in the plaza complex reflected the existence of socioeconomic ascendancy. Spanish society had always stressed \"purity\" of blood in indicating societal rank. At the top of the social pyramid were the españoles, with both Spanish parents, which included the españoles peninsulares (born in the Spanish peninsula) and the españoles insulares of Filipinos (born in the colony). Below the españoles were the mestizos and mestizas the children of an Español and an indio or india. The term mestizos referred to the mestizos de sangley or Chinese mestizos, while Spanish mestizos were called mestizos de español. Constituting the majority of the population were the indios or indios naturals, pertaining to the natives of the Philippines without Spanish or Chinese ancestry. Generally, the Spanish colonizers believed that the indios could not comprehend more than the basic knowledge. The ceremonial splendor of the Roman Catholic Church aroused the admiration of the natives. More representatives of various religious orders such as the Augustinians, Dominicans, Franciscans, and Jesuits came to the Philippines after legazpi\'s expedition. The first bishop of Manila was Fray Domingo de Salazar, a member of the Order of Preachers (OP). He was succeeded by Fray Ignacio de Santibañez, a Franciscan priest who became the first Archbishop of Manila. The territory of the old Archdiocese of Manila covered the civil provinces of Nueva Ecija, the Southern half of Tarlac. Zambales, Pampanga, Bulacan, Rizal, Cavite, Batangas, Laguna, and the islands of Mindoro and Marinduque. Pope Clement VIII on August 26. 1595, established the Diocese of Nueva Segovia in Lal-lo, Cagayan. In the same year, the Diocese of Nueva Caceres in Camarines Sur and the Diocese of Cebu (cradle of Christianity in the Philippines) were also established. Consequently, the missionaries learned local dialects and introduced the Roman alphabet. By the 16th century, there were Filipinos like Tomas Pinpin (the first Filipino printer), who became conversant with the Spanish language. He wrote the first published Tagalog book titled Librong Pag-aaralan nang mga Tagalog nang uicang Castila (Book that the Tagalogs Should Study to Learn Spanish) for the benefit of unlettered Filipines in the Spanish language. Basic education was rendered by parochial schools, established primarily for religious instruction. The first one was established in Cebu. In 1582, Archbishop Domingo de Salazar ordered that every town was to have one school for boys and one for girls. Attendance was made compulsory. Parents paid the teachers\' salaries. The subjects taught were catechism, reading and. writing in the dialect, music, the rudiments of arithmetic, and trades and industries. Education was still in the early stage of development during the Spanish period. Even by the late 19\" century, the Spanish language was still unknown to a great majority. They were literate in their own native dialects. The Spanish aristocracy tried to distinguish themselves from the indios with the use of language and level of education. Higher education was established exclusively for the Spaniards and Filipinos, referring to those born in the colony to Spanish parents. Colleges and universities were closed to indios. (The Natives were only allowed in these institutions after 200 years of colonial rule). The Jesuits in Manila founded the first college for boys in 1589. It was originally called College of Manila (for the scholastics), and later changed to College of San Ignacio. In 1621, it was elevated to the rank of a university by Pope Gregory XV and was named University of San Ignacio. However, this school was closed in 1768 when the Jesuits were expelled from the country. In 1601. the Colegio de San Jose also under the Jesuits, was established. In 1611, Fray Miguel de Benavides, the third archbishop of Manila established the Colegio de Nuestra Señora del Santissimo Rosario, later renamed Universidad de Santo Tomas (in 1645 by Pope Innocent X). The Dominican order that administered Colegio de Santo Tomas also established the Colegio de San Juan de Letran to take care of orphaned Spanish boys. The girls were also given special education. Schools were of two kinds: the colegio, which is a regular school for girls; and the beaterio, a combined school and nunnery. The first college for girls in the Philippines was the College of Santa Potenciana (1594). After the school. ceased its operations, the students transferred to College of Santa Isabel, now the oldest existing college for girls in the country. The institution was originally built to care for orphaned Spanish girls. Eventually, it became an exclusive school for the daughters of affluent Spaniards. In 1621, the Franciscan nuns established the Real Monasterio de Santa Clara (now St. Claire Convent of Manila), the first nunnery in the Philippines. In 1694 the Beaterio de la Compania de Jesus, which was directed under the Jesuits was founded by Mother Ignacia del Espiritu Santo, a Filipina nun. This was a school established to accommodate Filipino girls, the indias. Mother Ignacia\'s spirit of poverty, humility, penance, confidence in God and charity became the distinguishing mark of the beatas (resident pupils). The beatas had extended their apostolate to education. The beaterio has developed into the Congregation of the Religious of the Virgin Mary (R.V.M.) of the 20 century. Primary education consisted of courses in reading, writing, arithmetic, religion: geography, the history of Spain, the Spanish language, vocal music; and agriculture for boys and needlework for girls. The girls were taught basic education, as well as religion, needlework, painting, and music. Academic reforms were later on implemented, after the Spanish government conceded to its growing demand. The Educational Decree, dated December 20, 1863 introduced a system of public education that opened opportunities to Filipinos for higher learning. It ordered the establishment of an educational system consisting of elementary, secondary, and collegiate levels. The Board of Public Instruction was likewise created to supervise the schools. The decree also provided for the use of Spanish as the language of instruction, starting at the elementary level. The Escuela Normal (Normal School) for the training of male teachers for elementary instruction, was delegated to the Jesuits. It was inaugurated in 1865. In 1893, it became the Normal Superior, which trained teachers of secondary courses. Schools for the arts were also built aside from these regular schools. Archbishop Juan A. Rodriguez founded the Escuela de Tiples in 1743. The institution was to provide elementary education and offer courses in vocal and instrumental performance. In the late 19\" century, the school was able to pattern its plan of study after the Conservatory of Music in Madrid. Damian Domingo founded the Academy of Fine Art, the first school in painting in Manila in 1820. With this, he was called the \"Father of Filipino Painting.\" The Academia de Dibujo y Pintura (Academy of Drawing and Painting) was founded in 1824. Some of its students were sent by the government to pursue higher studies in Madrid, Rome, and Paris. In the 19\" century, various technical schools were established like the School of Mercantile Accounting and Modern Languages, patterned after the Commercial School in Barcelona. Commerce was introduced as a three-year vocational course, with the degree of perito to be earned by the student after studying.. Mechanics and other vocational courses were offered in secondary instruction leading to the bachillerato en artes. After finishing the course, the students could take examinations for the title of perito mecanico (mechanical expert). Surveying was also introduced as a vocational course, which conferred the degree of perito agrimensor to its graduates. It was in 1860, that a nautical school was opened upon orders of the queen. It was placed under the commander of the fleet. After four years, the student was to board a ship. The degree of piloto de marina mercante was to be given after the training. The seeds of vocational education were sown by the early Spanish missionaries who taught the natives better methods of farming, the cultivation of foreign plants like indigo, corn, cotton, and wheat, and various crafts like printing, carpentry, masonry, and dyeing. The early missionaries were also the first to establish a printing press in the Philippines. Books were being printed by xylographic method, using engraved wood blocks. The earliest book printed was the Doctrina Christiana en lengua española y tagala (1593), written by Fray Juan de Oliver. This catechetical book sought to explain the importance of Christ, chasity, and devotion to God in the vernacular. At the beginning of the 19th century, the passion was the prevalent form in print. Written in verse and chanted during Lent, it depicted the life and passion of Jesus Christ. The first Tagalog passion was written by Gaspar Aquino de Belen. It was published in 1704. The second. written passion titled Casaysayan ng Pasiong Mahal ni Jesucristong Panginoon Natin na Sucat Ipag-alab ng Sinomang Babasa (The Story of the Holy Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ that Should Inflame the Heart of the Reader, circa 1814) was preferred over the first one. It was also known as Payong Genesis. This version was edited by Father Mariano Pilapil (circa 1758-circa 1818) and published by the Imprenta de Santo Tomas. It was later translated into several native dialects. During the first half of the 19th century. Jose de la Cruz was the most prominent poet in the oral tradition. He was said to have written many literary pieces in elegant Tagalog language. Among them were: Doce Pares de Francia, Bernardo Carpio; and, Adela at Florante. He was popularly known as Huseng Sisiw because whenever zealous writers approached him for guidance in their verses, he required them to bring sisiw (chick) as payment. Pedro Bukaneg, the blind poet who wrote the popular Ilocano epic. Lam-Ang, was hailed as the \"Father of Ilocos Literature.\" Among the Tagalogs, Francisco Balagtas (later dubbed as the Prince of Tagalog Poets) became popular with his poetical pieces particularly, Florante at Laura. Momentous feasts and events like the arrival of new Spanish official also meant stage presentations. The first recorded drama was staged in Cehu in 1598, a comedia written by Vicente Puche. It was performed in honor of Msgr. Pedro de Agurto, Cebu\'s first bishop. Christian victory over the Muslims was depicted with a linambay (moro-moro in Tagalog) in 1637. At the end of the 17ª century, the first theater was established in Intramuros, Manila, known as Teatro Comico. At the turn of the 19th century, the zarzuela, a Spanish one-act opera with satirical theme became popular in the country. These stage plays were performed at fiestas where townfolks eaglerly watch so as not to miss the gala presentation. In the field of music, the Sampaguita composed by Dolores Paterno became popular. The first music teacher to win distinction in Philippine history was Geronimo de Aguilar, a Franciscan missionary. In 1811, the first newspaper in the country appeared in Manila, which was the Del Superior Govierno (Of the Supreme Government) with Governor General Manuel Gonzalez de Aguilar as editor. In the field of science, the first scientists in the Philippines were the Spanish friars. Fr. Manuel Blanco, the \"Prince of Botanists,\" wrote Flora de Filipinas, which was published in 1837, This book identified 1,200 kinds of plants in the country. The first sundials in the country were built in 1871 at Tagudin, Ilocos Sur by Fr. Juan Sorella, a Spanish Augustinian. Father Marcial Funcia Ramos introduced the first iron printing press in the Philippines in 1847. He also initiated the use of better paper such as papel de hilo (linen paper), instead of rice paper and Chinese paper. George Oppel, a German, introduced lithography in the country in 1858. Transported through galleons (huge Spanish trading ships) were plants like corn, cassava, sweet, cotton, maguey, indigo, achuete, tobacco, cacao, peanut, cashew nut, pineapple, avocado, pepper, squash, tomato, lima bean, turnip, and eggplant. The Spaniards also brought to the Philippines some animals like horses, cow, sheep, and goats. The galleon ships were used to ferry the cargoes via Pacific Ocean to Acapulco, Mexico were brought into the Philippines by Asian traders from China, Japan, India, Siam (now Thailand), Moluccas, and other nearby places. Manila hecame an important port for the galleons. The galleon would be carrying minted coins or silver bullion and products of Mexico on its return. The galleon trade was a government monopoly, however, the Chinese merchants outnumbered the Spanish and Filipino traders in selling their goods mainly silk textiles and porcelain to Mexico. The Chinese formed an economically important community in Manila by the 1590s but years later were given restrictions. When the galleon trade ended in 1815, Philippine trade was opened to the world, but links in Latin America weakened. The financing of the galleon trade was made possible primarily through the Obras Pias, the earliest banking institution in the country. The funds were donated by rich people for charitable purposes, Later, the friars had the funds given as loans to businessmen at various rates of interest. The friars were also able to borrow from the government. Unfortunately, they were not able to pay back the government resulting in the bankruptcy of the national treasury. In 1717, Governor General Fernando Manuel de Bustamante compelled the friars to return the money they borrowed from the government. This however, only resulted to his death in 1719 in the hands of an angry mob, agitated by his stringent rules against the members of the church. The Spanish government also attempted to introduce economic reforms in the country, through the efforts if some enlightened officials like Governor General Jose Basco y Vargas. Governor Basco implemented series of reforms not only to promote economic development but also to make the country independent of subsidy from Mexico. He envisioned large-scale production of silk, cotton, tobacco, spices, and sugarcane; the application of scientific knowledge to Philippine agriculture and industry and the growth of foreign trade on the basis of Philippine natural resources. Governor General Basco (1778-87) founded the Sociedad Econimica de los Amigos del Pais (Economic Society of the Friends of the Country) in Manila on April 26, 1781. The society helped much in the agricultural development of the country. In 1824, importation of martines (birds) from China was made to fight the locusts that were destroying Philippines crops. The society also offered prizes for best agricultural projects and techniques developed. In 1853, Candido Lopez Diaz, a Filipino, was awarded for his invention of a machine cleaning hemp fibers. In 1861, the society established the first agricultural school in Manila. It introduced the cultivation of tea, cotton, poppy, and mulberry trees. Large tracts of land in Camarines were planted of mulberry trees to feed silkworms. Upon Governor Basco\'s recommendation, King Charles III issued a royal decree in 1780. establishing a government monopoly in the Philippines that took effect in 1782. Thus, the government established monopolies on tobacco, wine, gunpowder, playing cards, and among others. The tobacco monopoly raised much money for the colonial government but resulted to the abuses of some crooked Spanish officials. They often cheated the farmers in the payment of their produce. The farmers on the other hand cultivated more than what was required and hid their excess tobacco to be sold in the black market. In 1882, Governor General Fernando Primo de Rivera abolished the monopoly. Private firms took control of the tobacco business. Governor General Felix Berenguer de Marquina succeeded Governor Basco. His first official act was the demolition of nipa houses in the city of Manila, which to him was an ugly sight and can even cause fire. He also ordered the abolition of indulto de comercio (license to trade), which gave the alcalde mayor (provincial governor) the privilege to control the prices of goods in his province. Monopolies on playing cards, gunpowder, and wine were also abolished. He established the minting of money in the country to prevent the outflow of gold. In 1842, Don Sinibaldo de Mas, an economist was sent by Spain to the Philippines to make an economic survey of the country. In his report, he made the following recommendations: first, the opening of more Philippine ports to world trade; second, the encouragement of Chinese immigration in the country to stimulate agricultural development; and third, the abolition of the tobacco monopoly. The opening of the Philippines to world trade resulted to a great demand for its products in the world market. This brought about the need of machinery for massive production. The first steam machine for hulling rice was introduced in 1936 by Eulogio de Otaduy. Then a few years later, Nicholas Loncy, a British merchant, introduced the first steam machine for hulling sugar in Negros. The end of the galleon trade together with Spain\'s involvement in the Napoleonic Wars (1799-1858), reduced the large-scale importation of fabrics. This became beneficial to the local weaving industry The most important materials used in weaving were cotton, abaca, silk, and piña. Sinamay or pinukpok is made from beaten abaca fibers, which were extensively woven in Camarines, Albay, Panay, Bohol, and Samar. Finest of the fabrics were usually woven in combination. Nipis (sheer) is from pure silk in combination with cotton and abaca (from the trunk of wild banana). A particular type of nipis produced in Iloilo came to be called jusi (from the raw silk fibers brought in by Chinese traders). Since weaving of the nipis requires a great amount of skill, patience and time, the cloth was priced highly. Also popular during the Spanish era was the piña fabric (from the leaves of the wild pineapple). Batangas was known for its kulambo (gauze mosquito net). The Northern Luzon provinces produced a type of cloth known as abel loco. As early as in the 1700s the Spaniards brought in their dressy shirt (tucked out) with standing collar. Woven embroidery of the fabric is for display and for some, due to health reasons. With the sinamay or pinukpok material, skin irritation at times developed because of the material\'s fibers and the country\'s warm temperature. The trousers used with shirt were loose and required the use of slippers or shoes. In the early 19\" century, the Augustinian missionaries introduced spinning wheels and more sophisticated looms in Panay Island, which greatly developed the local weaving industry of the place. In time, needlework developed in Ermita, Malate, and Sta. Ana, Manila. Finished articles were expensive, primarily because of embroisery. Elaborate works of embroidery were séwn on hemlines, sleeves, scarves, handkerchiefs, and on children\'s clothes. With skilled labor, this cottage industry gained popularity. The Christianization of the Filipinos was the most lasting legacy of the Spanish. missionaries. The Spaniards converted much of the Philippines to Christianity except Mindanao and Sulu. The use of Philippine dialects by the early missionaries facilitated the teaching of the Gospel. The striking resemblances between the pre-colonial religion and Catholicism have made the latter acceptable to the local inhabitants. During the Spanish period, no building structure was allowed to rise higher than the church\'s bell tower. The highest part inside the church was the retablo. At the center and above the altar table was the tabernacle for storing the sacred hosts Many holy images and their corresponding devotions have originated from New Spain (now Mexico). Some of the popular images are the following: statue of Our Lady of Peace and Good Voyage (also known as Our Lady of Antipolo), the Black Nazarene venerated at the Quiapo Church, and Our Lady of Guadalupe. Jesus Christ has been represented in various forms. As a child he is depicted as the Santo Niño, either placed on a manger or standing as the Sovereign King with a globe and a scepter. On his way to Calvary, he is presented as the Nazareno. While placed inside a sepulcher, the image is called Santo Entierro. The image of the resurrected Christ is known as Cristo Resucitado. Christ on the cross known as the Santo Cristo is regarded as the most important symbol of the Church. It is to be placed at the center of every altar. During the Spanish era, it occupied the central pinnacle of the church\'s retablo (decorated medieval altar). Family life during the Spanish period focused on the Christian way of life. The father although acknowledged as the head of the family, considered the sentiments of his wife on family matters. The mother was regarded as the custodian of the family. She usually acted as the first teacher of the children.. Families became more considerately close since parents and children did pray together,. particularly during the Angelus, in saying the rosary and before each meal. They went to church together to hear the Sunday mass as well as other masses, marking important religious events like Christmas, Holy Week, and the feast day of the patron saint of the town. Owing to the influence of Christianity, social welfare was also promoted in the country The sick and the needy were given care through medical services. Juan Clemente founded the first hospital in Manila in 1578. Out of this hospital originated the present San Juan de Dios Hospital and the San Lazaro Hospital. In 1594, the Santa Hermandad y Cofradia de la Misericordia (Holy Brotherhood and Confraternity of Mercy) was organized for charitable works and services for the needy. The first regular orphanage, Real Hospicio de San Jose, was established in 1810. The religious calendar stemmed from celebrations in reverence of Jesus Christ and Mother Mary and in the feasts of saints. Every December 8, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception, which solemnizes the dogma of Mary being conceived without original sin is celebrated through Eucharistic rites and a grand procession. The whole Christendom celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ on December 25. The joyous celebration begins on December 16 with the start of Misa de Aguinaldo (Mass of the Gift). popularly known is simbang gabi, a novena dawn mass to prepare for the midnight mass on Christmas Eve called Misa de Gallo (Mas of the Rooster). A religious play called panunuluyan, which reenacts the search by Joseph and Mary for an inn has also been observed in some parishes prior to the midnight mass. After the mass, families gather for the traditional noche buena, a feast usually of ham, cheese, and other native delicacies. The passion and death of Our Lord is solemnly remembered during Lenten season, particularly during Holy Week from Palm Sunday to Easter Sunday. People chant the passion or attend the cenaculo (religious play depicting the life, sufferings, and crucifixion of Jesus Christ). In Easter Sunday, the traditional salubong commemorates Christ\'s first meeting with His mother, In Marinduque, the Moriones Festival is held during the Holy Week. This glittering pageantry recalls the story of Longinus, the Roman centurion who was converted to Christianity. In this colorful parade, the participants wear masks and costumes portraying the Roman era. A typical Mariones mask bears a bearded Caucasian face with large arrogant eyes and an open mouth. The tradition of self-flagellation during the Lenten season was introduced in the Philippines from Mexico. During those times, public penance was practiced in Spain and the rest of Europe. But in Mexico and in the Philippines self-flagellation was primarily done to carry out a promise (panata in Tagalog) to the Lord. Every town established during the Spanish period has a patron saint, whose fiesta is celebrated annually with masses, procession, fireworks, feasting, music, and often, theatrical presentations. Towns or barrios named after San Jose (St. Joseph) hold their fiesta on March 19. Those named Sta. Monica celebrate every May 4. Those named after Sta. Rita de Casia commemorate her feast day on May 22. Those named San Juan (St. John the Baptist) observe his feast on June 24. Every May 15, the Pahiyas Festival in Lucban, Quezon is held in honor of San Isidro Labrador, the patron saint of farmers. The word \"pahiyas\" comes from the root word hiyas, which gives a notion of a joyous shower of blessings or treasures. Elaborate decorations like rice wafer, fruits, and vegetables are placed on houses, as an outpouring of creativity and thanksgiving for good harvest. In Pulilan, Bulacan, the Carabao Festival is also held in honor of San Isidro every May 15. Work animals mostly colorfully groomed and shaved carabaos are led on parade on the streets of Pulilan to genuflect or kneel in front of the church. Also in Bulacan, the Obando Festival is in honor of the town\'s patron saints Nuestra Señora de Salambao, San Pascual Baylon, and Santa Clara, which begins on the 17th of May. It is a three-day celebration. Pilgrims attending the festival usually wear straw hats adorned with quills, flowers, ribbons or paper and join the dance to appeal for heavenly intercession for a future spouse in the case of singles or a child in the case of childless couples. Farmers also attend to thank the Virgin of Salambao for bounteous harvests. Bicol\'s grandest celebration is the annual Peñafrancia Festival where a fluvial procession is made in honor of Our Lady of Peñafrancia every 17h of September in Naga, Camarines Sur. Culminating the final novena prayers is a Gregorian Mass, in thanksgiving to God and in honor of Our Lady. During the entire month of May, parishes annually hold the Flores de Mayo (Flowers of May), where devotees offer flowers every day at the church altar to honor the Blessed Mother. Before the month ends, the Santa Cruz de Mayo or the Santacruzan procession is held to commemorate the finding of the Holy Cross by Empress Helena and Emperor Constantine. The participants called sagalas play various characters found in Christian history, which includes the Reyna Elena. This festive celebration ends inside the church. Solemn rites and celebrations were followed by dining and merrymaking among families and friends. During these occasions, Spanish culinary specialties like paella (a mixture of rice, chicken and shellfish), arroz valenciana (rice and chicken cooked in coconut milk), and lengua (sauteed ox-tongue) were usually served in feast tables. **6. Chinese in the Philippines** During the Spanish times, the Chinese were called Sangleys, derived from the terms xiang and ley meaning \"traveling merchant.\" Since Legazpi and those who succeeded him favored Sino-Philippine trade, more trading junks from China came to the Philippines annually. bringing their merchandise like silk, textiles, and porcelain wares. Prior to the coming of the Spaniards, the Chinese had already established their settlements in the country. The Chinese, who were able to learn the styles and techniques from native craftsmen, predominantly occupied the manufacturing of carriages, stone masonry, printing, shoemaking. and tailoring. In Manila, they were force to live outside the city walls. The place was called Parian, erected in 1581 by Governor General Gonzalo Ronquillo de Peñalosa. Outside Manila, many Chinese engaged I retail trade, while others invested in land. Many Chinese settled in the Philippines after the Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864) in China. A number of them were converted to Catholicism and married Filipina women. Their descendants, called Chinese mestizos, were formed. During the Spanish period, the Chinese mestizos were able to acquire land from peasants through the pacto de retroventa. This was also known as pacto de retro, which was a contract under which the borrower who conveyed his land to the lender could repurchase it for the same amount of money that he had received. Generally, the borrower could no longer pay the sum of money; thus, the transfer of land ownership to the lender has been completed. The Chinese in the Philippines had given valuable services to the community but still they were not given fair treatment by the Spanish authorities, owing to their constructive role in the economic development of the country. To discourage Chinese immigration to the country. the Spanish authorities taxed them heavily. They were also taxed twice the amount required of Filipinos because they earned more. The Spanish government encouraged the immigrants to become agricultural laborers. Soon, the Chinese gained position in the cash-crop economy in the provincial level. The Chinese mestizo could legally change his classification through the dispensa de ley, which involved the transfer of his family to the tax register of indios. The Chinese compound name was combined into a single surname, e.g., Tan Hwang Co to Tanjuangco. He wore the camisa de chino and the top hat, a status symbol of the native principalia. The first Chinese threat to Spanish rule in the Philippines was the invasion of Lim-Ah- Hong. He appeared in Manila Bay on November 29, 1574 with 62 war junks and shiploads of farming and household goods. He was in search of a kingdom. In Parañaque beach, Lim-Ah-Hong landed a force of 600 men under Sioco, his Japanese lieutenant. On November 30, 1574, Sioco attacked Bagumbayan, killed Marshal Martin de Goiti, and assaulted the city of Manila. But the Spanish forces aided by Filipinos, drove the invaders back to their ships. Lim-Ah-Hong himself led the second attack in Manila. This time, Juan Salcedo has already arrived from Vigan upon knowing the previous attack in Manila. He succeeded Goiti as marshal. Sioco died in action while Lim-Ah-Hong retreated with his ships and men northward, to Pangasinan. He established a colony at the mouth of Agno River. However, Lim-Ah-Hong\'s colony in the Philippines did not last long. Marshal Salcedo with a fleet of 1,500 Filipinos and 250 Spaniards sailed from Manila to Pangasinan and destroyed Lim-Ah-Hong\'s stronghold in Lingayen Gulf. Lim-Ah-Hong evaded capture. He managed to escape through a man-made canal and fled to the hills and mingled with the Igorots and Tingguians. Then, he returned to China and reorganized his forces but he was defeated by the Chinese viceroy in Fookien in a naval battle of Palahoan. He fled to Thailand but was not permitted to stay there. He went to other kingdoms, but for fear of China, these kingdoms did not welcome him. He wandered from one place to another, till his whereabouts could no longer be traced. The first Chinese revolt was brought about by the deep-seated suspicion of the Spaniards. On May 23, 1603, three Chinese mandarins arrived in Manila. They wanted to see Chin-San Mountain of Gold), which was believed to be in Cavite. The Spaniards looked at it as a plausible scheme. After the mandarins had left, the Spaniards strengthened the city defenses, which alarmed the Chinese residents. In Parian, a secret plot to overthrow the Spaniards was planned under the leadership of Eng-Kang, a rich Chinese merchant. They attacked Tondo and Quiapo on October 3, 1603 hy setting the buildings on fire and by killing the inhabitants. Don Luis Dasmariñas (former governor general) and Captain Tomas Bravo de Acuña (nephew of Governor General Acuña) led the retaliatory attacks but they were ambushed. However, the Chinese failed to capture the city walls because of the Spanish, Filipino and Japanese joint forces, including the friars as well as the residents of the area. The Chinese rebels retreated to the hills of San Pablo. Laguna, but they were defeated by the forces led by Cristobal de Axqueta Monchaca. In 1639, the Chinese revolted for the second time. This was caused by Governor General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera\'s order forcing the Chinese to work in Calamba, Laguna. The Chinese denounced the abuses committed by Spanish tribute collectors. On November 19, 1639, hostilities began in Calamba and it spread to other towns killing several Spanish friars, including the alcalde mayor of Laguna, Marcos Zapata. In the early part of 1662, Koxinga (real name was Cheng Chengkung) was able to take Taiwan from the Dutch. He sent Fr. Victorio Ricci to Manila, to extend his directive for tribute from the Spanish authorities. This infuriated Governor General Manrique de Lara and thus, he prepared to drive out all Chinese residents in the country. The Chinese retaliated by burning the district of Santa Cruz. Many Filipinos and Spaniards were killed. An army of 4,000 Pampangueños under Francisco Laksamana came to the rescue and defeated the rebels who had fled to the mountains of Tagaytay and Antipolo. The fourth Chinese revolt (1686) was planned by Tingco, a Chinese ex-conviet. He was desperate to raise money to return to China. He tried to burn the city of Manila and to loot the churches. His group of rebels attacked in August, starting at the Parian, in the house of Don Diego Vivien, the alcalde mayor. The government forces arrived and routed them. Tingco was caught and executed. To put an end to possible Chinese insurrection in the country, the governor in 1729 ordered that all unbaptized Chinese in Manila were to reside in the Parian. The baptized ones had to reside in Binondo and Sta. Cruz. However, when the British came and occupied Manila in 1762 the Chinese collaborated with them to fight the Spaniards. The Chinese in Manila as well as the Chinese in Guagua, Pampanga secretly plotted to massacre the Spaniards on Christmas Eve of December 24, 1762. One of the plotters happened to reveal the plot to his Filipina sweetheart. The latter relayed the news to Fr. Jose Salas, the parish priest of Mexico, Pampanga. Governor General Simon de Anda who was informed of his plot, led his forces to Guagua on December 20 and crushed the Chinese rebels. This bloody confrontation was considered in Philippine history as the \"Red Christmas.\" **7. More Europeans in the Islands** Towards the end of the 16\" century, some European nations began the attempts to establish settlements in the Philippines. In 1579, English mariners including Sir Francis Drake started to harass Spanish shipping. The Dutch also began to raid some islands in the Philippines. They likewise assaulted Chinese, Portuguese, and Japanese trading vessels. In 1602, the Dutch trading companies sent fleets capable of seizing control of the spice trade from the Portuguese. As Portugal\'s ally, Spain committed its forces in the Philippines to help avert Dutch assaults. Thus, the Dutch were drawn to the Philippines to weaken the Spanish fleet stationed in the colony. Their base of operations was Formosa (Taiwan). Dutch naval squadron attacked various places in the Philippines from 1600-1747, which discouraged Chinese and Japanese traders from entering the colony. In February of 1646, a Dutch fleet arrived in the Philippines Sea. As the Spanish officers and crew prepared for battle, the Dominican friars advised the people to do penance and pray for the intercession of Nuestra Señora del Santissimo Rosario (Our Lady of the Most Holy Rosary). After five naval skirmishes between March 15 and October 4, 1646, the Filipinos and Spaniards won the eight-month naval battle of Manila against the Dutch. This naval victory, until now is being celebrated as Festival La Naval de Manila in honor of Our Lady, the patroness of the Spanish fleet. This is truly a manifestation of divine intervention for people to reflect on the social and moral pressures that threaten the Filipino society. The first successful foreign invasion of the Philippines, after the Spanish conquest was the one staged by the British, It happened when Spain became involved in the Seven Years War (1756-1763) on the side of France and Austria against Britain and Prussia for the control of Germany and for supremacy in North America and India. In counterstrike, Britain laid claim to most of the Spanish colonies in the Americas and the Orient, including the Philippines. On the evening of September 22, 1762 (Manila Time), the British fleet consisting of 13 ships (with around 2,000 men) entered Manila Bay. The commander of the fleet was Rear Admiral Samuel Cornish, while Brigadier General William Draper was in command of the troops. The following morning, September 23, two British officers sent ashore under a white flag, a truce carrying an ultimatum to the Spanish officials, demanding the surrender of Manila. Upon the advice of the council of war. Archbishop Manuel Antonio Rojo, the interim governor general rejected the ultimatum. Thousands of Filipino warriors from Pampanga, Bulacan, and Laguna reinforced the military army in Manila, then with only 556 regular troops. Their leader was Manalastas, a Pampangueño. Still, they were outnumbered and outarmed. Knives and spears were no match against British rifles. Draper\'s cannons tore down the southwest corner of the city walls. Finally, they were forced to retreat. Although unsuccessful, this battle was significant for the Filipinos, for it proved their loyalty to Spain and to Catholicism. Manila fell into British hands on October 5, 1762 after a white flag was hoisted at Fort Santiago. This was to stop the horrible slaughter of city defenders and residents. Terms of surrender were discussed. Simon de Anda, the youngest oidor of the Audencia Real had escaped in a boat on the eve of the fall of Manila. He was dispatched by Archbishop Rojo to Bulacan to ensure the loyalty of the rest of the provinces to Spain. He established his headquarters in Bacolor, Pampanga. He continued the government with himself as the governor general. Archbishop Rojo had also sent messenger to Palapag. Samar where the galleon Filipino docked. The ship had brought back from Mexico the situado (subsidy) of over a million silver pesos. The government wanted to keep this fund from the British. Under Rojo\'s instructions, the ship was burned after the silver coins were taken out safely. Learning about it, Cornish sent his frigates to Samar but the money had already been placed under Anda\'s care. During the brief occupation of the British in Manila, the country had three governors: Archbishop Rojo, Oidor Simon de Anda, and Honorable Dawsonne Drake, who established a civil government in Manila. He was appointed by the East India Company to govern the Philippines. The brief occupation of Manila by the British resulted to different reactions. When the British took Pasig, Alimud Din sought refuge and was later restored to his sultanate in the south. In return, he signed a treaty permitting the British to establish a trading center in Jolo. The people of Parañaque stood loyal to the Spaniards. Pampanga and Bulacan rallied behind Anda. However, in North and Central Luzon, some people roused in action against the Spanish government. In Pangasinan, a revolt was instigated by Juan de la Cruz Palaris. In the Ilocos region, Diego Silang accepted the British bid of support for his cause in fighting against the Spaniards. The Seven Years War in Europe came to an end with the Treaty of Paris signed on February 10, 1763. Among the terms settled was the acquisition of almost entire French Empire in North America by Britain. The British also acquired Florida from Spain. England has to restore the Philippines to Spain. The news reached Manila in a much later date. On May 31. 1764, Anda and his troops went back to Manila amidst the jubilation of the populace in conformity with the treaty, which formally ended the war.