Infancy and Toddlerhood Development PDF

**CHAPTER 4: INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD** -birth up to two years of age. **I. OVERALL PHYSICAL GROWTH** - The average newborn weighs about 7.5 pounds (between 5 and 10 pounds) and is about 20 inches in length. - Lose about 5 percent of their body weight as they eliminate waste and get u...

**CHAPTER 4: INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD** -birth up to two years of age. **I. OVERALL PHYSICAL GROWTH** - The average newborn weighs about 7.5 pounds (between 5 and 10 pounds) and is about 20 inches in length. - Lose about 5 percent of their body weight as they eliminate waste and get used to feeding. - During 4 months old, it usually doubles in weight and by one year has tripled the birth weight. - By age 2, the weight has quadrupled - The average length at one year is about 29.5 inches and at two years it is around 34.4 inches **II. BODY PROPORTIONS** - The head initially makes up about 50 percent of our entire length when we are developing in the womb. - At birth, the head makes up about 25 percent of our length - By age 25 it comprises about 20 percent our length. **III. INFANT SLEEP** - A newborn typically sleeps approximately 16.5 hours per 24-hour period. - The infant is averaging 15 hours per 24-hour period by one month, - 14 hours by 6 months. - At 2 years of age, they are averaging closer to 10 hours per 24 hours. - The average newborn will spend close to 50% of the sleep time in the Rapid Eye Movement (REM) phase, which decreases to 25% to 30% in childhood. **III. EXPECTED DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS DURING INFACY AND TODDLERHOOD** - **Reflex Behavior** -- automatic, innate response to stimulation which are controlled by the lower brain centers that govern involuntary processes \\ - **Primitive reflexes** -- includes sucking, rooting, and the Moro reflex are related to instinctive needs for survival and protection or may support the early connection to the caregiver - **Postural Reflexes** -- reactions to changes in position or balance - **Locomotor Reflex** -- resemble voluntary movements that do not appear until months after the reflexes have disappeared - Early Reflexes Disappear during the first 6-12 months +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **EARLY HUMAN | | | | REFLEXES** | | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **Moro/Startle** | - - | | | | | | | -must disappear after | | | | 3 months | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Darwinian | \- Make strong first | | | (Grasping)** | | | | | 1\. Plantar - foot | | | -must disappear after | | | | 4 months | 2\. Palmar **--** | | | | palm | | | | | | | | \- Changed to | | | | voluntary movements | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Tonic Neck** | Fencer Position | | | | | | | -must disappear after | (Hand-Eye | | | 5 months | Coordination) | | | | | | | | - | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Babkin** | \- Mouth opens, eyes | | | | close, neck flexes, | | | -must disappear after | head tilts forward | | | 3 months | | | | | \- Hold both arms and | | | | when the pals are | | | | stroked they will | | | | yawn | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Babinski** | - | | | | | | | -must disappear after | | | | 4 months | | | | | - | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Rooting** | - - | | | | | | | -must disappear after | | | | 9 months | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Walking / | - - - | | | Stepping** | | | | | | | | -must disappear after | | | | 4 months | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Swimming** | - | | | | | | | -must disappear after | | | | 4 months | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ ----------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------- **Infant Ages for the Six Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage** **Substage 1** Reflexes (0--1 month) **Substage 2** Primary Circular Reactions (1--4 months) **Substage 3** Secondary Circular Reactions (4--8 months) **Substage 4** Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8--12 months) **Substage 5** Tertiary Circular Reactions (12--18 months) **Substage 6** Beginning of Representational Thought (18--24 months) ----------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------- **Substage 1: Reflexes**. - Newborns learn about their world through the use of their reflexes, such as when sucking, reaching, and grasping. **Substage 2: Primary Circular Reactions**. - During these months, the infant begins to actively involve his or her own body in some form of repeated activity (e.g. **vocalization**). This interest motivates trying to do it again and helps the infant learn a new behavior that originally occurred by chance. **Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions**. - The infant becomes more and more **actively engaged in the outside world,** for example, the infant is able to bang two lids together from the cupboard when seated on the kitchen floor. **Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions**. - The infant combines these basic reflexes and simple behaviors and **uses planning and coordination to achieve a specific goal**. For example, an infant sees a toy car under the kitchen table and then crawls, reaches, and grabs the toy. **Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions**. - The toddler is considered a "little scientist" and begins exploring the world in a **trial-and-error manner**. For example, the child might throw the ball down the stairs to see what happens. The toddler's active engagement in experimentation helps them learn about their world. **Substage 6: Beginning of Representational Thought**. - The toddler now has a basic understanding that objects can be used as symbols. - Can think about events and anticipate consequences without always resorting action - Can use symbols such as gestures and words, and can pretend - Transition to Pre-operational stage - **Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget)** \- Piaget believed that we are continuously trying to maintain cognitive equilibrium, or a balance, in what we see and what we know. - **Schema** a framework for organizing information - **Assimilation** *fitting the new information into an existing schema* - **Accommodation** *expanding the framework of knowledge to accommodate the new situation* **IV. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRESSION** - **Crying of Infants** - **Basic Hunger Cry** -- rhythmic pattern that usually consist of cry, followed by a briefer silence - **Angry Cry** -- more excess air is forced through vocal cords - **Pain Cry** -- sudden long, initial loud cry followed by breath holding - **Frustration Cry** -- higher pitch an a more monotonic vocalization is associated with autonomic system activity during stressful procedures in infants - Starting before birth, babies begin to develop language and communication skills. a. **Intentional Vocalizations** -- cooing or babbling b. **Gestures --** Children communicate information through gesturing long before they speak c. **Understanding** -- the infants understand more than they can communicate aka receptive language. d. **Holophrasic Speech** -- use partial words to convey thoughts **V. DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES DURING INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD** **Temperament --** innate characteristics of the infant, including mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity, noticeable soon after birth. - **Easy Child** is able to quickly adapt to routine and new situations, remains calm, is easy to soothe, and usually is in a positive mood. - **Difficult Child** reacts negatively to new situations, has trouble adapting to routine, is usually negative in mood, and cries frequently. - **Slow-to-Warm-Up Child** has a low activity level, adjusts slowly to new situations and is often negative in mood. **Parenting is bidirectional**: Not only do parents affect their children, children influence their parents. **Psychosocial And Psychosexual Development** - For infants, delayed speech due to lack of interaction with the caregiver and delayed cognition due to lack of stimulation - According to **[Erik Erikson]**, as babies, our first challenge involves forming basic sense of **Trust versus Mistrust** - Ideally, babies develop a balance between trust and mistrust - If trust predominates, as it should, children develop **Hope** and the belief that they can fulfill their needs and obtain their desires **Approximate Age** **Crisis** **Virtue Developed** ---------------------------------- -------------------------- ---------------------- Infancy (0-18 months) Trust vs. Mistrust Hope Toddler (18 months -- 36 months) Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt Will - **Maladaptive Tendency for Infancy:** - **Malignant Tendency:** - **Significant Person:** Mother - **Maladaptive Tendency for Toddler:** - **Malignant Tendency:** - **Significant person:** Parents - Successful in this stage = hopeful child - Failed = withdrawn child - In **[Sigmund Freud's]** second psychosexual development stage, Anal Stage, it stated how the development of children on this stage is focused on controlling bowel movements. - Fixations of this stage leads to **Anal-Retentive** and **Anal-Expulsive** Individuals - ***Anal-Retentive**:* obsessed with orderliness and tidiness due to strict potty training - ***Anal-Expulsive**:* very messy and disorganized adults due to lax potty training **VI. ATTACHMENT** **A. STRANGE SITUATION TECHNIQUE (MARY AINSWORTH)** conducted in a context that is unfamiliar to the child and therefore likely to heighten the child's need for his or her parent. - **Attachment --** reciprocal, enduring emotional tie between an infant and a caregiver, each of whom contributes to the quality of the relationship - **Strange Situation --** by Mary Ainsworth; designed to assess attachment patterns between infant and adult - **Secure attachment style** - usually explores freely while the caregiver is present and may engage with the stranger. - flexible, resilient - Secure attachment in early development becomes a foundation for psychological development later - grow up as secured adults, can speak about attachment relationships with feeling but will also be thoughtful and reflective - balances dependency and exploration, balances emotion and thought - Parenting Style: Sensitive and Responsive - Low avoidance, low anxiety - **Ambivalent** (sometimes called resistant) **attachment style** - is wary about the situation in general, particularly the stranger, and stays close or even clings to the caregiver rather than exploring the toys. - generally anxious even before the caregiver leaves - Cling to the caregiver then push them away when comforted - grow up as enmeshed adults (pre-occupied), cannot turn their attention away from attachment, provide contradictory, rapidly alternating views of their attachment relationships accompanied by a gush of vivid memories - Parenting Style: rejecting-unresponsive or intrusive-overly stimulating (inconsistent) - low avoidance, high anxiety - **Avoidant attachment style** - will avoid or ignore the mother, showing little emotion when the mother departs or returns. - outwardly unaffected by a caregiver leaving or returning - Not distressed if caregiver leaves, do not reestablish contact when they return - grow up as dismissing adults, attachment is devalued and dismissed by these adults with concomitant emphasis on though separated from emotions - Parenting Style: Inconsistent, often unresponsive - Low anxiety, high avoidance - **Disorganized/disoriented attachment style** - seems to have an inconsistent way of coping with the stress of the strange situation. - lack a cohesive strategy to deal with the stress of the strange situation; they show contradictory, repetitive, or misdirected behaviors; confused and afraid - Strong patterns of avoidance and resistance or display certain specified behaviors such as extreme fearfulness - have psychopathological tendencies - Parenting Style: frightened and frightening - high avoidance, high anxiety **VII. DEVELOPMENTAL CHALLENGES AND MILESTONES** ▪ **Anoxia** -- lack of oxygen ▪ **Hypoxia** -- reduced oxygen supply ▪ Anoxia or Hypoxia may occur during delivery as a result of repeated compression of the placenta and umbilical cord that could leave permanent brain damage, mental retardation, behavior problems or even death ▪ ***Meconium**:* stringy, greenish-black waste matter formed in the fetal intestinal tract ▪ ***Neonatal Jaundice**:* skin and eyeballs look yellow caused by immaturity of the liver ▪ ***Low Birth Weight Infants**:* weigh less than 5 pounds and 8 ounces at birth *- [Very Low birth Weight]:* less than 3 pounds 4 ounces *- [Extremely Low Birth]:* less than 2 pounds ▪ ***Pre-term Infants**:* born three weeks or more before pregnancy reach full term (before the completion of 37 weeks of gestation) ▪ ***Small for Date Infants** (Small for Gestational Age Infants):* those whose birth weight is below normal when the length of pregnancy is considered **-** *[Progestin]:* might help in reducing preterm birth **-** *[Extremely Preterm]:* born less than 28 weeks gestation **-** *[Very Preterm]:* less than 33 weeks **- *Kangaroo Care****:* involves skin-to-skin contact in which the baby, wearing only diaper, is held upright against the parent's bare chest to help stabilize the preterm's heartbeat, temp, and breathing **- *Nonorganic Failure to thrive****:* slowed or arrested physical growth with no known medical cause, accompanied by poor developmental and emotional functioning **- *Shaken Baby Syndrome****:* baby has a weak neck muscle, and a large, heavy head, shaking makes the brain bounce back and forth inside the skull \- One condition commonly faced by preterm babies is ***Respiratory Distress Syndrome*** -- wherein there is a lack of surfactant (lung-coating substance) that keeps air sacs from collapsing **- *Postmature Babies****:* tend to be long and this because they have kept growing in the womb but have had an insufficient blood supply toward the end of gestation **- *Sudden Infant Death Syndrome****:* crib death; sudden death of an infant under age 1 which cause of death remains unexplained **VIII: EXPECTED DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES DURING INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD** **[Infancy]** *1st Month:* \- infants can turn their head from side to side \- grasping reflex \- practice reflexes and control them \- cries when they are unhappy and become quiet at the sound of human voice or when they are picked up *2nd -- 3rd Month:* \- babies can now lift their heads \- can grasp moderate sized things until they will be able to grasp one thing using right hand and transfer it to their left hand \- can now hold their head still to find out whether the object is moving \- can already match the voice to faces \- distinguish male and female \- size constancy \- infants develop the ability to perceive that occluded objects are whole \- social smiling *4th Month:* \- babies can keep their heads erect while being supported in a sitting position \- can now roll-over, accidentally \- begin to reach objects \- begin to coordinate sensory information and grasp objects \- turn toward sounds *6th Month:* \- babies cannot sit without support \- can start creeping or crawling \- could successfully reach for objects in the dark faster than they could in the light \- they can now localize or detect sounds from their origins \- repeat actions that brings interesting results \- cooing \- they can now recognize their name *7th Month:* \- pincer grasps could already manifest \- can start standing \- can now sit independently *8th Month:* \- babies can now sit without help \- can now learn to pull themselves up and hold on to a chair *10th month:* \- can now stand alone \- babbling *11th month:* \- babies can let go and stand alone well \- can now anticipate events **[Toddlerhood]** \- early reflexes disappears \- potty training \- can now pull a toy attached to a string and use their hands and legs to climb stairs \- can now walk quickly, run, and balance on their feet in a squatting position \- purposefully vary their actions to see results \- explores the world and trial and errors \- can now think about events and anticipate consequences without always resorting to action \- learns numbers \- can now use symbols such as gestures of words \- can now point at a picture of an object while saying its name, demonstrating an understanding that a picture is a symbol of something else \- speak in two-word utterances (telegraphic speech) \- social emotions towards self and others (embarrassment, pride, guilt, empathy etc.)