Ancient India and China PDF

Chapter 3 Ancient India and China 2600 B.C. – A.D. 550 Section 1: Early Civilizations of India and Pakistan: Geography of the Indian Subcontinent: - The Indus Valley is located in the region known as South Asia or the Indian subcontinent. A subcontinent is a large landmass that juts out from a c...

Chapter 3 Ancient India and China 2600 B.C. – A.D. 550 Section 1: Early Civilizations of India and Pakistan: Geography of the Indian Subcontinent: - The Indus Valley is located in the region known as South Asia or the Indian subcontinent. A subcontinent is a large landmass that juts out from a continent. - The Indian subcontinent is a huge peninsula extending into the Indian Ocean. Today is includes three of the world’s ten most populous countries- India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh as well as the island of Sri Lanka and the mountain nations of Nepal and Bhutan. Natural features define regions: - The Indian subcontinent is divided into three major zones: 1) Gangetic Plain in the north – south of the Himalayas a fertile region is watered by mighty rivers. 2) The dry Deccan plateau – raised area of level land, that juts into the Indian Ocean it feed the rivers of the north and provide water for irrigation 3) The coastal plains on either side of the Decan – separated from the Deccan by low-lying mountain ranges, the Eastern and Western Ghats Monsoons affect climate: A defining feature of life in the Indian subcontinent is the monsoons, or seasonal winds that regularly blow from a certain direction for part of the year. Monsoons have shaped Indian life. Each year people welcome the rains that are desperately needed to water the crops. If the rain are late, famine and starvation may occur. Indus civilization rises and falls: - About 2600 B.C. the earliest South Asia civilization emerged in the Indus River Valley in the present-day Pakistan. The Indus civilization flourished for about 700 years. - Archaeologist have investigated numerous Indus sites. They have not yet turned up any names of kings or queens, tax records, literature, or accounts of famous victories. The written remains of Indus civilization are found only rarely usually on small clay seals that do not include any long passages. Well planned cities reveal organized government: - Archaeologists’ investigation in recent years have led them to believe that at least five large cities may have been prominent during the course of the civilization’s history. Making a living by farming and trading: - As in other early civilizations most people living in the Indus civilization were farmers. They grew a wide variety of crops, including wheat, barley, melons, and dates. They also may have been the first people to cultivate cotton and weave its fibers into cloth. - Some people were merchants and traders, their ships carried cargoes of cotton cloth, grain, copper, pearls, and ivory combs to distant lands. Religious belief’s develop: - From clues such as statues and images on small clay seals, archaeologists have speculated about the religious beliefs of Indus Valley people. Many think the Indus were polytheistic. Indus civilization declines: By 1900 B.C. the quality of life in the Indus Valley was declining. Crude pottery replaced the finer works of earlier days. Scholars do not know for sure what happened to the Indus civilization, but they have offered several explanations for its decline. Epic literature tells about Aryan life: - The Aryans maintained a strong oral tradition as well. They continued to memorize and recite ancient hymns, as well as two long epic poems, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. Like the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh, the Indian epics mix history, mythology, adventure, and religion. - Mahabharata tells of warfare and religion. - Ramayana teaches values of behavior - Section 2 Hinduism and Buddhism: - Hinduism and Buddhism emerged in ancient India. The ethical and spiritual messages of both religious profoundly shaped Indian civilization. The beliefs of Hinduism develop: - Hinduism has no single founder and no single sacred text. Instead it grew out of the overlapping beliefs of the diverse groups who settled India. The process probably began when the Aryans added the gods of the Indus civilization to their own. Hinduism became one of the world’s most complex religions, with countless gods and goddesses and many forms of worship existing side by side. Despite this diversity, all Hindus share certain basic beliefs. One force underlies everything: - “God is one, but wise people know it by many names.” This ancient proverb reflects the Hindu belief that everything is part of the unchanging, all powerful spiritual force called brahman. Hindus worship a variety of gods who give concrete form to brahman. The most important Hindu gods are Brahma, the Creator, Vishnu, the Preserver, and Shiva, the Destroyer. Each can take many forms, human or animal, to represent the various aspects of brahman with which he is associated. Sacred texts reveal Hindu beliefs: - Over many hundreds of years Hindu teachings were recorded in the sacred texts of the Vedas. The Upanishads are a section of the Vedas that address mystical questions related to Hinduism. These sacred texts use vivid images to examine complex ideas about the human soul and the connectedness of all life. In addition, literary works such as the Bhagavad-Gita were also revered for their representations of Hindu beliefs. Achieving Moksha is the goal of life: - To Hindus every person has an essential self, or atman. Some view it as the same as brahman and others as a form of brahman. The ultimate goal of existence Hindus believe is achieving moksha or union with brahman. To do that, individuals must free themselves from selfish desires that separate them from brahman. - Hindus believe a person can come closer to achieving moksha by obeying the law of karma. - Hinduism stresses the importance of dharma the religious and moral duties of an individual. - Another key moral principle of Hinduism is ahimsa or nonviolence. Jainism develops from Hinduism: - 500 B.C. the teacher Mahavira founded Jainism a religion that grew out if Hindu traditions and that is still practiced today. Mahavira rejected the idea that Brahmin priests alone could perform certain sacred rites. The Caste System shapes India: - The Aryans divided society into four groups. - Non-Aryans held the lowest jobs. During the Vedic Age class divisions moved more toward reflecting social and economic roles than ethnic differences between Aryans and non-Aryans. - These changes occurred more complex system of castes, or social groups into which people are born and which can rarely be changed. Complex rules uphold the Caste System: - Caste was closely linked to Hindu beliefs. To Hindus, people in different castes were different species of beings. A high- caste Brahmin, for example, was purer and therefore closer to moksha than someone from a lower caste. - To ensure spiritual purity a web of complex caste rules governed every aspect of life for example where people lived what they ate, how they dressed and how they earned a living. - Rules forbade marrying outside one’s caste or eating with members of another caste. The untouchables today known as Dalits, life was harsh and restricted. They had to live apart and to sound a wooden instrument called a clapper to warn of their approach. Caste affects the social order: - Despite its inequalities caste ensured a stable social order. People believed that the law of karma determined their caste. - The caste system gave many people a sense of identity and interdependence. Each caste had its own occupation and its own leaders. Key teachings of the Buddha: - In the foothills of the Himalayas a reformer appeared named Siddhartha Gautama. His teachings eventually spread across Asia to become the core beliefs of one of the world’s most influential religions, Buddhism. - Gautama’s early life is known mostly through various religious writings and literature. He was born a prince about 563 B.C. - According to tradition his mother dreamed a radiant elephant descended to her from heaven, this sign led a prophet to predict that the boy would someday become a wandering holy man. Gautama’s father kept him in the family’s palaces, surrounded by comfort and luxury. At 16 Gautama married a beautiful woman and enjoyed a happy life. At 29 his life changed, he took a ride beyond the palace gardens and saw an old man, on following rides he saw a sick person, and a dead body. For the first time h became aware of human suffering. Deeply disturbed he bade farewell to his family and left the palace never to return. He set out to discover “the realm of life where there is neither suffering nor death.” - Gautama wandered for years, learning from the Hindu scholars and holy men whose ideas failed to satisfy him. He fasted and meditated. - Gautama became the Buddha, or Enlightened One. Following the Four Noble Truths: They lie at the heart of Buddhism: 1) All life is full of suffering, pain, and sorrow 2) The cause of suffering is nonvirtue or negative deeds and mindsets such as hatred and desire 3) The only cure for suffering is to overcome nonvirtue 4) The way to overcome nonvirtue is to follow the Eightfold Path The Buddha described the Eightfold Path as “right views, right aspirations, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right contemplation. - The first two steps involved understanding the Four Noble Truths and committing oneself to the Eightfold Path. - Next the person had to live a moral life at last achieve enlightenment. - The moral principles such as honesty, charity, and kindness to all living creatures. Comparing Buddhism and Hinduism: - Buddhism grew from the same traditions as Hinduism. - Both Hindus and Buddhists stressed non-violence and believed in karma, dharma, and a cycle of rebirth. Yet the religions differed in several ways. Buddhism spreads beyond India: - The Buddha attracted many disciples or followers who accompanied him as he preached across northern India. Many people accepted to Buddha’s teachings set up monasteries and convents for meditation and study, which led to major centers of learning. - Legend holds that at age 80 the Buddha ate spoiled food. As he lay dying, he told his disciples, “Decay is inherent in all things. Work out your own salvation with diligence.” After the Buddha’s death, his followers collected his teachings into the Tripitaka, or Three Baskets of Wisdom. Buddhism spreads and divides: - Missionaries and traders spread Buddhism across India to many parts of Asia. - Buddhism split into two sects, or subgroups, such as: Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism. - Buddhism declined in India, Hinduism absorbed some Buddhist ideas and made room for Buddha as another Hindu god. Section 3 Powerful Empires of India: Chandragupta Maurya forged the first Indian empire. The Maurya Empire creates a strong government: - Chandragupta first gained power in the Ganges valley. He then conquered northern India. His son and grandson later pushed south, adding much of the Deccan to their empire. - Chandragupta maintained order through a well organized bureaucracy. Royal officials supervised the building of roads and harbors to benefit trade. Other officials collected taxes and managed state-owned factories and shipyards. - Chandragupta had specially trained women warriors guard his palace. Asoka rules by Moral example: - Chandragupta’s grandson, became emperor in 268 B.C. fought a bloody war to conquer the Deccan region of Kalinga. Converted to Buddhism ruled by moral example. - He sent missionaries to spread Buddhism across India and to Sri Lanka. By doing this he spread Buddhism throughout Asia. - Asoka had stone pillars set up across India offering moral advice and promising a just government. His rule brought peace and prosperity and helped unite the diverse peoples within his empire. Division and Disunity set in: - After Asoka’s death Maurya power declined. By 185 B.C. the unity of the Maurya empire was shattered as rival princes again battled for power across the Gangetic Plain. Kingdoms arise across the Deccan: - Like the Gangetic Plain the Deccan was divided into many Kingdoms after the decline of Maurya power. Each kingdom had its own capital with magnificent temples and bustling workshops. - Tamil kingdoms which occupied much of the southernmost part of India, trade was important. Tamil rulers improved harbors to support overseas trade. Tamil merchants sent spices, fine textiles, and other luxuries westward to eager buyers in the Roman empire. The Guptas bring about a Golden Age: Gupta emperors organized a strong central government that promoted peace and prosperity. Under the Guptas, who ruled from A.D. 320 to about 540, India enjoyed a golden age, or period of great cultural achievement. Peace and Prosperity abound: - Trade and farming flourished across the Gupta empire. Farmers harvested crops of wheat, rice, and sugar cane. In cities, artisans produced cotton cloth, pottery, and metalware for local markets and for export to East Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. The prosperity of Gupta India contributed to a flowering in the arts and learning. - Under Gupta rule students were educated in religious schools. However, in Hindu and Buddhist centers, learning was not limited to religion and philosophy. The large Buddhist monastery-university at Nalanda, which attracted students from many parts of Asia, taught mathematics, medicine, physics, languages, literature, and other subjects. - Indian mathematicians also originated the concept of zero and developed the decimal system of numbers based on ten digits, which we still use today. - Indian physicians were using herbs and other remedies to treat illness. Surgeons were skilled in setting bones and in simple surgery to repair injuries. Doctors began to vaccinate people against smallpox about 1,000 years before this practice was used in Europe. - Indian recorded fables and folk tales in the Sanskrit language. - The greatest Gupta poet and playwright was Kalidasa, his most famous play is Shakuntala tells the story of a king who marries the lovely orphan Shakuntala. Under an evil spell, the king forgets his bride. After many plot twists, he finally recovers his memory and is reunited with her. The Gupta Empire declines: The Gupta empire declined under the pressure of weak rulers, civil war, and foreign invaders. From central Asia came the White Huns, a nomadic people who overran the weakened Gupta empire, destroying its cities and trade. Once India split into many kingdoms it would see no other great empire like those of the Mauryas or Guptas for almost 1,000 years. Family and Village life shape Indian Society: - Joint family structure: the ideal family was a joint family in which parents, children, and their offspring shared a common dwelling. Indian families were patriarchal – the father or oldest male in a family headed the household. Adult sons continued to live with their parents even after married and had children. The daughter would go to live with her husband and his family. The family performs certain duties: - The family performed the essential function of training children in the traditions and duties of their castes. Thus family interests came before individual wishes. Children worked with older relatives in the fields or a at a family trade. A daughter learned to serve and obey her husband and his family, a son learns the rituals to honor the family’s ancestors. Role of women changes over time: - In early Aryan society women seem to have enjoyed a higher status than in later times. Aryan women even composed a few Vedic hymns. - By late Gupta times, upper-class women were increasingly restricted to the home. When they went outside they are suppose to cover themselves from head to foot. - Lower-class women, however, labored in the fields or worked at spinning and weaving. - Women were expected to get married and have children, they were expected to have shakti which gave them a creative energy that men did not have. - For women to rebirth into a higher existence was gained through devotion to her husband. Often a widow was expected to join her dead husband on his funeral fire. In this way, a widow became a sati, or virtuous woman. Some widows accepted this painful death as a noble duty that wiped out their own and their husbands sins. Other women bitterly resisted the custom. Typical village structure: - In India’s history, the village was at the heart of daily life. The size of villages varied, from a handful of people to hundreds families. A typical village included a cluster of homes made of earth or stone. - Each village included people of different castes who performed the necessary tasks of daily life. - Farming depended on the rains brought by the summer monsoons. - Villages produced most of the food and goods that they needed. They also relied on trade such as spices, salt, and other manufactured goods. Section 4: Rise of Civilization in China: The legend of Yu offers insights into early China. The Chinese depended so much of rivers for irrigation and transportation that they highly valued the ability to control floodwaters and to develop irrigation system. The legend also shows how much the Chinese prized devotion to duty. Both themes played a key role in the development of Chinese civilization. Geography influences civilization: Long distances and physical barriers separated China from Egypt, the Middle East, and India. This isolation contributed to the Chinese belief that China was the center of the earth and the sole source of civilization. These beliefs in turn led the ancient Chinese to call their land Zhongguo or the Middle Kingdom. Geographic barriers set China apart: To the west and southwest of China brutal desserts and high mountain ranges the Tian Shan and the Himalayas blocked the easy movement of people. To the southeast thick rainforests divided China from Southeast Asia. To the north awaited a forbidding desert the Gobi. To the east lay the vast Pacific Ocean. China includes varied regions: - The Chinese heartland lay along the east coast and the valleys of the Huang, or Yellow River and the Chang River. In ancient times, as today, these fertile farming regions supported the largest populations. Then as now the rivers provided water for irrigation and served as transportation routes. - Xinjiang and Mongolia have harsh climates and rugged terrain. They were occupied by nomads and subsistence farmers. Chinese rulers conquered or made alliances with the people of these regions and another outlying region, Manchuria. China extended its influence over the Himalayan region of Tibet, which the Chinese called Xizang. Settling along the River of Sorrows: The Chinese history began in the Huang River valley, where Neolithic people learned to farm. Like other places they needed to control the flow of the river through large water projects probably led to rise of a strong government and the founding of what is sometimes called the Yellow River civilization. The Huang River got its name from the loess, or fine windblown yellow soil that it carries eastward from Siberia and Mongolia. Long ago the Huang River was called, “River of Sorrows”, due to the raise of the river and destroying the crops and bursting over the land, this brought starvation to the villagers. China begins to take shape under the Shang Dynasty: - The Shang Dynasty was the first to rule China in about 1122 B.C., it had some of the largest palaces and tombs for their rulers. - The Shang emerged to drive off nomads from the northern steppes and deserts. Loyal princes and local nobles governed most of the land. - Archaeologists discovered the burial place of Fu Hao wife of Shang king Wu Ding. Artifacts showed she owned land and helped to lead a large army against invaders. - Shang warriors used leather armor, bronze weapons, and horse-drawn chariots. - Artisans produced goods for nobles, including bronze weapons, silk robes, and jade jewelry. - Merchants exchanged food and crafts made by local artisans for salt, certain types of shells, and other goods not found in northeastern China. - Majority of the people in the Shang Dynasty were peasants. The Zhou Dynasty further defines China: - In 1122 B.C. the battle of Zhou people marched out of their kingdom on the western to overthrow the Shang. They set up the Zhou Dynasty which lasted until 256 B.C. - Zhou promoted their idea of the Mandate of Heaven, or the divine right to rule. The cruelty of the last Shang king they declared had so outraged the gods that they had sent ruing on him. - The gods then passed the Mandate of Heaven to the Zhou who treated the multitudes of the people well. - - The Chinese later expanded the idea of the Mandate of Heaven to explain the dynastic cycle or the rise and fall of dynasties. As long as a dynasty provided good government it enjoyed the Mandate of Heaven. - If the king was weak and corrupt the Chinese believed that heaven would withdraw its support. Floods, famine, or other catastrophes were signs that a dynasty had lost the favor of heaven. - The Zhou rewarded their supporters by granting them control over different regions. Under them China developed a feudal state, feudalism was a system of government in which local lords governed their own lands but owed military service and other forms of support to the ruler. - The Zhou kings ruled for 850 years. Under their rule the economy grew. They brought the knowledge of ironworking in 600s B.C. - China started to create iron axes, and ox-drawn iron plows replacing the stone, wood, and bronze tools, farmers produced more food. Peasants also began to grow new crops, such as soybeans. Feudal lords organized large-scale irrigation works, making farming ever more productive. - During the Zhou commerce expanded and the use of money began for the first time in China. Chinese copper coins were made with holes in the center so that they could be strung on cords. - During the late Zhou period social changes were disrupting old ways of life, new belief systems developed which would form the basic Chinese culture and government for centuries to come. - Thinkers such as Confucius and Laozi put forward ideas on how to restore social order and maintain harmony with nature. DYNASTIES OF CHINA: DYNASTY: DATES: 1) SHANG 1766 B.C. TO 1122 B.C. 2) ZHOU 1122 B.C. TO 3) QIN 221 B.C. TO 206 B.C. 4) HAN 202 B.C. TO A.D. 220 5) SUI A.D. 581 TO A.D. 618 6) TANG A.D. 618 TO A.D. 907 7) SONG A.D. 960 TO A.D. 1279 8) MING A.D. 1368 TO A.D. 1644 9) QING A.D. 1644 TO A.D. 1911 THE DYNASTY CYCLE: 1) THE NEW DYNASTY: RESTORES PEACE APPOINTS LOYAL OFFICIALS REDISTRIBUTES LAND TO PEASANTS BUILDS CANALS, IRRIGATION SYSTEMS, AND ROADS REPAIRS DEFENSIVE WALLS (AFTER SEVERAL GENERATIONS THE NEW DYNASTY BECOMES AN AGING DYNASTY.) 2) THE AGING DYNASTY: NEGLECTS GOVERNMENT DUTIES IGNORES CORRUPT OFFICIALS LOSES CONTROL OF THE PROVINCES IMPOSES HEAVY TAXES TO PAY FOR LUXURIES ALLOWS DEFENSIVE WALLS TO DECAY (AGING DYNASTY LOSES THE MANDATE OF HEAVEN) 3) PROBLEMS: FLOODS, FAMINE, EARTHQUAKES INVASIONS ARMED BANDITS IN THE PROVINCES PEASANT REVOLTS (NEW DYNASTY CLAIMS THE MANDATE OF HEAVEN) Confucius spreads his wisdom: - Confucius was born in 551 B.C. to a noble but poor family. A brilliant scholar hoped to become an adviser to a local ruler. He studied ancient texts to learn the rules of conduct that had guided the ancestors. - Confucius never wrote down his ideas. Rather his students collected many of his sayings in the Analects. He took interest in spiritual matters such as salvation. He developed a philosophy or system of ideas, that was concerned with worldly goals, especially those of ensuring social order and good government. - He taught that harmony resulted when people accepted their place in society. He stressed five key relationships: 1) Ruler to subject, 2) parent to child, 3) husband to wife, 4) elder brother to younger brother, 5) friend to friend - After he died his ideas influenced many aspects of Chinese life. Chinese rulers relied on Confucian ideas and chose their scholars as officials. Yin and Yang is the Chinese traditional of harmony. Daoism teaches harmony with nature: - Laozi or “Old Master”, is said to have lived at the time of Confucius, and to have founded a philosophy called Daoism. He wrote the “Dao De Jing” or The Way of Virtue a book that had enormous influence on Chinese life. - He believed to live in harmony with nature. - Chinese scholars turned writing into an elegant art called calligraphy. The Chinese have written with characters which used brush and ink. Section 5 Strong rulers in unite China: - Shi Huangdi was determined to end the divisions that had splintered Zhou China. He spent nearly 20 years conquering most of the warring states. He built a strong authoritarian Qin government. - He centralize power with the help of Legalist advisers. Legalism was based on the teachings of Hanfeizi who had died in 233 B.C. which believed the “nature of man is evil. His goodness is acquired.” Hanfeizi insisted that the only way to achieve order was to pass strict laws and impose harsh punishments for crimes. - Shi Huangdi made it the official policy for the Qin dynasty. He tortured or killed anyone against his believe. He approved a ruthless campaign of book burning of all writings, manuals on topics such as medicine, and agriculture. - He also abolished feudalism from local rulers and replaced the feudal states with 36 military districts and appointed loyal officials to administer them. - He forced noble families to live in his capital Xianyang in order to control them and monitor them. He distributed the lands of the displaced nobles and peasants. Peasants had to pay high taxes to support his armies and projects. - Shi Huangi built the Great Wall which was costly. It became an important symbol to the Chinese people dividing and protecting their civilized world from the nomadic bands north of the wall. - After his death in 210 B.C. the Qin dynasty collapsed in 206 B.C. due to its harsh rule. The Han Dynasty strengthens China: Gao Zu set to restore order and justice in China. After the Qin dynasty collapse Gao lowered taxes and eased Legalist policies. He appointed the Confucian scholars as advisors and created the Han dynasty. - Emperor Widi took China to new heights, he strengthened the government and economy. He also chose Confucius scholars, he set up an imperial university at Xian. - Widi also improved canals and roads which helped the economy. He reorganized finances and imposed a government that could buy grain when it was abundant and sell it at stable prices when it is scarce. This is a monopoly government, which has control of a product or business by one person or group. He also open the Silk Road for trading with new foods such as grapes, figs, cucumbers, and walnut. - Han emperors adopted the idea that civil servants which believed should win their positions by merit, rather than though family ties as had occurred in the past. - The civil service system remained in use until 1912. - Dynasties fell but Confucian beliefs survived in every dynasty. - At the fall of the Han dynasty court intrigues undermined emperors who could no longer control powerful warlords or local military rulers. Peasants joined secret groups of bandits known as “Red Eyebrows”, and the “Green Woodsmen”. Invaders poured over the Great Wall and set up their own states. - After 400 years of unity China broke up into several kingdoms after the fall of the Han dynasty. Achievements of the Han Golden Age: - Was one of the Golden age of Chinese civilization, made tremendous advances in so many fields that the Chinese later called themselves “the people of Han”. - Han scientist wrote books on: chemistry, zoology, botany, and other subjects - Astronomers observed and measured movements of stars, and planets which enabled them to improve earlier calendars and invent a simple seismograph to detect and measure earthquake - Wang Chong believed there was one moon eclipse about every 180 days, and a solar eclipse about every 41 or 42 months - Acupuncture was developed for medical treatments - Paper was made out of wood pulp, by Cai Lun which is the manufacture paper used today - Other inventions were: bronze and iron stirrups, fishing reels, wheelbarrows, and suspension bridges - Ban Zhao wrote a book for men and women on proper behavior, he educated children, and believed women should be obedient, respectful, and submissive - Chinese tradition valued family loyalty, while Buddhism honored monks and nuns who gave up the benefits of family life for a life of solitary meditation