Engineering Ethics Chapter 3 PDF

Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hamadan 1 and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah Spring 2021 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by 1/30/2021 Moham...

Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hamadan 1 and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah Spring 2021 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by 1/30/2021 Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah Ethical Theories Based on Philosophical Scholarship: 3.1 Utilitarianism 3.2 Rights Ethics 3.3 Duty Ethics 3.4 Virtue Ethics 3.5 Self-Realization and Self-Interest Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 2  An ethical theory is a comprehensive perspective on morality that clarifies, organizes, and guides moral reflection. A good ethical theory should provide a framework for making moral choices and resolving moral dilemmas – not a simple formula, but rather a comprehensive way to identify, structure, and integrate moral reasons. Ethical theories also ground the requirements in engineering codes of ethics by reference to broader moral principles. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail 1/30/2021 Shakfah 3  We will discuss five types of ethical theories (and traditions) that have been especially influential Utilitarianism Self-realization ethics a)Act-utilitarianism a)Egoistic Duty b)Rule-utilitarianism ethics a)Self-Realization and Personal Commitments Rights Virtue ethics ethics Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 4  as Moral Frameworks Utilitarianism says that we ought to maximize the overall good for the most people, taking into equal account all people those affected by our actions. Rights ethics says we ought to respect human rights. Duty ethics says we ought to respect individuals' rational autonomy. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 5  as Moral Frameworks Virtue ethics says that good character is central to morality. Self-realization ethics emphasizes the moral significance of self-fulfillment. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 6 Utilitarianism is the view that we ought always to produce the most good for the most people, giving equal consideration to everyone affected. Right conduct is nothing more than the maximization of good consequences. a) Complexity This seems simple and sensible. Engineers should ‘hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public’. Welfare essentially means overall good (‘utility’). But what exactly is the good to be maximized? Should it be the good accomplished through individual action, or through general rules (laws, regulations, policies, principles, codes of ethics, etc.). Depending on how good (utility) is defined, utilitarianism takes different forms. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 7  Cost-benefit analysis: identifies the good and bad consequences of some action or policy, usually in terms of dollars. Risk-benefit analysis is the comparison of the risk of a situation to its related benefits. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 8 b) Comparison to cost-benefit analysis Cost-benefit analysis weighs good against bad consequences, usually in monetary terms. On the surface this looks like utilitarianism, but in practice it is often different. The big difference involves whose good and bad is considered, and how good and bad are measured. In cost-benefit analysis, it is usually corporate good, not everyone’s good. that is considered. And it is usually a short- term calculation (this financial quarter, the next election, etc.) Utilitarianism considers the costs and benefits to everyone affected: the interests of each person is weighed equally, rather than holding a corporation’s or government’s interests as more important than any other interest. Utilitarianism normally takes a long-term view, and seldom reduces it’s evaluation of good and bad consequences to measurement of monetary impacts Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 9  Designed to compete with foreign import models that had better gas mileage. Designing rushed to have it available to the public faster. Cost analysis showed that the cost of installing the part to be higher Ford knew that the gas tank would than the damage resulting from explode if hit at >20mph from rear. fatalities damage. Problem could have been avoided if Ford eventually did recall the Pinto a rubber bladder to cushion impact voluntary to try and save their was installed that cost $5.08 reputation to reputation installed. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 10  Act-utilitarianism: maximize the overall good for each action, in each situation. This approach focuses on each situation and the alternative actions possible in the situation. An particular action is right if it is likely to produce the most good for the most people in a given situation, compared to alternative choices. The right action is the one that produces the most overall good. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 11  This standard can be applied at any moment, and according to act-utilitarians, it should be. The problem is that actually thinking though every situation and all possible actions is almost impossible. So we tend to rely on ‘rules of thumb’ to provide guidance (e.g. ‘complete your work on time’). Two problems” i. these rules are based on past experience, and therefore cannot always handle novel situations ii. these rules are very general and although they ‘usually’ work, they have to be broken sometimes It is usually a good idea to finish your work on time, but it might be a better idea to take care of your sick mother than to spend all your available time finishing up your house work: the best action often depend on the specific situation Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail 1/30/2021 Shakfah 12  Rule-utilitarianism: says live by a set of rules that maximize the overall good This approach says we should in fact take rules more seriously than actions, because justifies rules are morally authoritative and not just loose rule-of-thumb guidelines. They are also more important than any specific isolated action. The right action is the one required by the rule that does the most good most of the time for the post people. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 13  This might sound like act-utilitarianism, but it isn’t. If following a generally good law actually, in a specific situation, causes more net ham than good: i. act utilitarians will say you should break that law in that situation; ii. rule-utilitarians will say you should not. However, because rules interact with each other, rules cannot be considered independently – they have to be considered as part of a set of rules: an optimal moral code. This is a set of rules (like an engineering code of ethics) which maximizes the public good more than any alternative codes would. Remember: if this code really optimal, it means that its rules should be followed even when an exception might happen to be beneficial. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail 1/30/2021 Shakfah 14  Case: Is paying bribe to win a contact for the company which will benefits all the employee acceptable or not? Rule-utilitarianism: maximize the good through following rules that maximize good consequences, rather than through isolated actions. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed 1/30/2021 Esmaail Shakfah 15  Historically (in the 20th century), rule-utilitarianism was developed to correct some problems in act-utilitarianism: i. act-utilitarianism allows some actions that we know are immoral. Stealing something from someone very wealthy would do very little harm to that person, and relatively more good to the thief. Act- utilitarianism would say the theft was okay. But we consider theft immoral. Rule-utilitarianism demonstrates how the overall good is maximized if everyone refrains from theft; something act- utilitarianism cannot do. ii. act-utilitarianism allows injustice to individuals as long as overall social good is maximized. If someone who is difficult to work with is fired for something they did not do, overall morale in a company might improve since no-one has to deal with that difficult individual any more. However, such a firing would still be immoral. iii. act-utilitarianism is unreasonably difficult to put into practice. If overall good is maximized by everyone with wealth giving it away to poor people, then the wealthy person’s well-being might be reduced slightly, but the poor’s well-being would be increased substantially more. This is asking too much of most people. Rule-utilitarianism solves this problem by developing ‘reasonable’ rules: e.g. give away as much as you can to help others, but keep enough so that you and your family are still comfortable. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail 1/30/2021 Shakfah 16  What is the standards of good is another disagreement between utilitarianism Act-utilitarianism seems that it permit immoral action (injustice & require too much). Stealing a Social good at the computer expense of individual expense Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 17  Suppose that stealing a computer from my employer, an old one scheduled for replacement anyway, benefits me significantly and causes only miniscule harm to the employer and others.  We know that the theft is unethical, and hence act-utilitarianism seems to justify wrongdoing.  Rule utilitarianism was developed as way to correct several problems with act-utilitarianism. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 18 Another issue within utilitarianism involves how ‘good consequences’ should be measured? Intrinsic good is something good regardless of consequences; instrumental (consequential) good is good judged by what it achieves. But which ones are ‘intrinsic’ and how do we decide? The classis answer is that pleasure is intrinsically good. I. Rational desires this view argues that intrinsic goods are those that we can affirm after a full examination of all information about the world and our own needs. Self-destructive desires (the ‘pleasures’ of eating too much, for example) can be shown to be irrational, therefore not intrinsically good. Only things alike love and creativity can be counted intrinsically good. II. preference theory this view argues that what is intrinsically good is simply what individual prefer, as manifested by their choices (often market choices) regardless of the consequences (good or bad) those choices might have. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 19  The general idea behind utilitarianism is pretty simple, you should do the thing that results in the greatest overall good. The problem and the criticism are simple - how do you know what’s going to end up producing the greatest overall good? The answer isn’t easy - essentially, you need to use your previous experience to guess at what will increase happiness. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 20  Answer by (True) or (False) T 1) Cost benefits analysis identifies the good and bad consequences of some action or policy in terms of dollars. T 2) Utilitarianism says the sole standard of right action is good consequences. T 3) There is only one general moral requirement for utilitarianism which is producing the most good for the most people, giving equal consideration to everyone affected. ___ F 4) Rule-utilitarianism Act seems to justify wrongdoing. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 21  Right Ethics regards human rights as fundamentals. Duty Ethics regards duties of respect for autonomy as fundamentals. Both theories emphasize respect for individuals’ dignity and worth, in contrast with utilitarian's emphasis of the general good. Rights Ethics and Duty Ethics are mirror images of each other: because you have a right to life, I have duty not to kill you; and if I have duty not to deceive you then you have a right not to be deceived. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 22  Right Ethics regards human rights as fundamentals. Rights are moral entitlements (when you have the right to do or have something) and valid moral claims that impose duties on other people All ethical theories leave some room for rights, but the ethical theory called rights ethics is distinctive in that it makes human rights the ultimate appeal the moral bottom line. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 23 Engineering: Rights enter into engineering in several ways. Holding paramount the health, welfare and safety of the public implies respect for a whole range of publics rights: I. right to life (not to be killed by engineering works) II. right to privacy (not to have personal matters exposed by engineering systems) III. right to safety (not to be injured by products) IV. right to liberty (not to have information about engineering risks withheld – i.e. informed consent) (etc.) Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 24 Human rights as absolute All ethical theories pay attention to rights, but rights ethics makes human rights the ultimate appeal and criterion of ethical action: morality is about respecting the inherent dignity and worth of individuals as they exercise their liberty. In rights ethics, we can make moral demands on others to respect our choices, as long as we allow others to make such demand on us. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 25 Influence Rights ethics has been hugely influential: I. politics (cf. US Declaration of Independence: “all men are endowed … with certain unalienable rights… ) II. women’s liberation movement III. civil rights movement IV. farm workers (laborers) movement V. cross-cultural ethics (etc.) Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 26 legal rights Note that human rights are basic rights we have as humans, regardless of whether or not they are supported in the law as legal rights; this is another example of where moral imperatives are not always identical to legal imperatives Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 27 1- Liberty rights Negative rights: the right to exercise one’s liberty (and the duty of others ‘not’ to interfere). Liberty rights are the basis for libertarianism, in which the emphasis is on individual freedoms, the protection of private property, the minimization of government regulation (because this limits individual freedom), and the elimination of all forms of welfare. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 28 2- Welfare rights Positive rights: the right to those benefits needed for a decent human life, especially in situations where one cannot earn these (because of disability of handicap, etc.). Thus welfare rights directly imply communities of people; and therefore these rights have to be determined contextually by reference to what the community believes is moral and what the community is able to provide to its members Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 29 Most rights ethicists agree that both kinds of rights (liberty, welfare) exist and should be respected. In addition, there a re special rights, and limitations on rights a) special moral rights These are rights that not all people have. These are grounded in human rights, but have a highly specific character. Engineers have certain rights (control over the engineering profession, for example) that others do not enjoy. These rights are normally given by legislation, but other special rights are conferred by promises and contracts (most products come with an implied contract or an explicit guarantee that the product will be safe and useful). b) limitations of rights Very few rights are absolute or unlimited in the sense of having no exceptions. Rights of freedom to pursue one’s own interests imply the right to be informed if products have risks (informed consent), and this right to free choice does not give engineers the freedom to design dangerous products. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 30  Duty ethics regards duties of respect for individual autonomy as fundamental. Like rights ethics (and unlike utilitarianism, which emphasizing general good), this approach emphasizes respect for individuals. Duty ethics is the mirror of rights ethics: because you have a right to life (rights ethics), I have a duty not to kill you (duty ethics). Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 31 One duty ethicist suggests the following list of important duties: 1) Do not kill 2) Do not cause pain. 3) Do not disable. 4) Do not deprive of freedom. 5) Do not deprive of pleasure. 6) Do not deceive. 7) Keep your promises. 8) Do not cheat. 9) Obey the law. 10) Do your duty [referring to work, family, and other special responsibilities. Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 32 Lists like these (above) are familiar, but how do we know that these really are our duties? Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) makes the following points. a) Autonomy: All these duties actually derive from a single fundamental duty: respect others; people deserve respect because they are moral agents with the capacity to recognize and respond to moral duty (they are morally ‘autonomous’). Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 33 b) Mere means and ends We are immoral if we treat others as means to an end (as objects) rather than as ends themselves (as morally autonomous subjects). Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 34 c) Self and other We have a moral duty to respect others, but we also have a duty to respect ourselves. d) Universality These moral principles apply universally – i.e. to all humans without exception. Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 35 e) Categorical imperative These moral duties are injunctions or commands that we impose on ourselves and others; they are categorical in the sense that we are required to follow – to do what is right -- because it is right, and with no special incentives. Being honest might benefit us most of the time, but we should be honest because being honest is a way of respecting the autonomy of others: it is a duty, not an option. Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 36 f) Absolutism These basic duties or moral rules (e.g. do not lie, etc.) are absolute in the sense that no exceptions are justified; this particular idea is usually rejected by ethicists, generally because in human life (and engineering practice) we tend to encounter situations where duties come in to conflict … so they cannot be absolute (if they were, they would be irrational and not binding on us). Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 37 Kant thought that everyday principles of duty, such as “Do not lie” and “Keep your promises,” are absolute in the sense of never having justifiable exceptions. In doing so, he conflated three ideas: 1) Universality moral rules apply to all rational agents 2) Categorical imperatives moral rules command what is right because it is right 3) Absolutism moral rules have no exceptions Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 38 a) Exceptions The Latin term prima facie literally means ‘on the face’, but in the sense used here, it means ‘might have exceptions’ (contrary to Kant, see item f) above). Practically, most duties are prima facie in the sense that they have reasonable permissible or obligatory exceptions. Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 39 b) Balance Although most duties are obvious, it is not always obvious how to balance them and find the best solution to a particular moral problem (i.e. how to find our actual duty in that case). One solution is to notice which duties are more pressing than others (we can be fairly confident that ‘do not kill’ will normally take precedence over ‘do not lie’, etc.) Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 40 c) Contextualism Usually, however, things are not this simple. Our last recourse, then, is to reflect carefully on particular situations (contexts), weighing all relevant duties in light of all the facts, and try to arrive at a sound judgment. Sometimes this takes intuition, but in general it is safer to rely on rational dialogue and reflect on the best ways to interpret and apply general rules with specific application. Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 41 When I am in a situation, as perhaps I always am, in which more than one of these prima facie duties is incumbent on me, what I have to do is to study the situation as fully as I can until I form the considered opinion (it is never more) that in the circumstances one of them is more incumbent than any other; then I am bound to think that to do this prima facie duty is my duty sans phrase in the situation [i.e., my actual duty, all things considered]. Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 42 Engineers have a duty to maintain confidentiality about information owned by their corporations, but that duty can be overridden by the paramount duty to protect the safety, health, and welfare of the public Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 43