Adapting Language Learning Materials

lOMoARcPSD|38512052 Chapter 3 Adapting Materials Language Learning Materials Development (University of Southern Mindanao) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university...

lOMoARcPSD|38512052 Chapter 3 Adapting Materials Language Learning Materials Development (University of Southern Mindanao) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 Chapter 3 ADAPTING MATERIALS Adapting teaching materials is about effecting changes to make them suitable for learners and their needs. Indeed, textbooks are not merely artefacts, and teachers have a fundamental role to play as ‘mediators’ (McGrath, 2002: 20) between the books and learners. This implies that teachers will almost inevitably adapt the materials they use in class. While a number of writers have focused on reasons why teachers need to adapt and how this might be achieved (see, for example, Cunningsworth, 1995; Maley, 1998; McDonough and Shaw, 2003), little attention has been paid to how teachers actually adapt materials, their underlying rationale and, above all, their attitudes towards adaptation. The need to adapt or modify the use of given textbooks and other language teaching materials to fit the requirements of particular learning situations, and even particular students, is widely recognized. This volume presents a systematic approach to adaptation useful for methods courses as well as for the experienced teacher or curriculum planner. As the first principle of effective adaptation, maintenance of congruence between a variety of factors is stressed; these factors include the teaching materials, the methodology and objectives of the course, student characteristics, the character of the language being taught, and the personality and style of the teacher. Adapting materials: Why and How? Why adapt materials? After all, coursebook writers and publishers work very hard to ensure their product meets their customers’ needs. The reasons, as McDonough (2013) highlights, depend on a whole range of factors operating in each teaching situation and one teacher’s priorities may well differ considerably from another. Maley (2011), points out that due to individual differences amongst the learners and to teacher factors, there will never be a perfect fit between the materials, the teacher and the learners. Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 Such teacher factors include: ✓ degree of language proficiency and confidence ✓ previous personal learning experience as learners rather than as teachers ✓ own personality (introvert/extrovert, open/closed etc) ✓ preferred teaching style (directive/consultative, etc) ✓ cultural background. Mishan and Timmis (2015), however, question if it is right to adapt materials according to the teacher’s own preferences and insist that adaptation must be driven by learners’ needs instead of teachers’ ‘whims’ or preferences. While it is a valuable point, I personally find myself selecting material based on what I’d feel comfortable teaching. Even Theresa Clementson admitted she wrote Unlimited so she has something to teach from. Malley (2011) goes on to highlight that ‘for reasons to do with the economics of publishing amongst other things, the materials are intended to be used by the largest possible number of learners. But in reality, the wider the area publishers try to cover, the more diverse the learner’s state is likely to be. As a result, the teacher has to bridge the gap between the materials and his/her learners’ need. Nick Robinson in his talk “An introduction to Learner Experience Design in ELT” urges EdTech companies to avoid going “wide and shallow” and instead go “narrow and deep”. He talks about creating Learner Personas – a specific group of learners with certain characteristics. Malley (2011), however, argues that ‘what is needed is not just decentralization of materials production, but a fundamental change in the design of materials in the direction of providing greater flexibility in decisions about content, order, pace and procedures. HOW? McDonough (2013) talks about different techniques that can be applied to content in order to bring about change. There are: 1. Adding 2. Deleting or omitting 3. Modifying Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 4. Simplifying 5. Re-ordering Malley (2011) offers the following strategies to make coursebooks or language materials more effective: 1. Give it a rest 2. Change it (a number of options include omission, addition, reduction, extension, rewriting/modification, replacement, reordering, branching) 3. Do it yourself Similarly, Madsen and Bowen (1978, cited in McGrath, 2002) defines adaptation as ‘one or more of a number of techniques: supplementing, editing,expanding,personalizing, simplifying, modernizing, localizing, or modifying cultural/situational content. 3.1 Teacher-centered and Learner-centered approach to adaptation Adapting courses-Developing Materials for Language Teaching ▪ Many examples of materials produced for language teaching and learning purposes seem to follow a very similar format, Activities, such as drills, tests and tables, Topics, reoccur in low level books or for beginners. And cause potential limitations, Objectives, usually based on main format of Presentation, Practice, Production approach. ▪ Adapting materials. A teacher-centered approach to adaptation Materials adaptation, is still left to the teachers’ hands, and it is largely based on their experience. A learner-centered approach to adaptation. Clarke (1989) distinguishes Negotiated Syllabus and Externally Imposed Syllabus. ▪ Adaptation as critical awareness development. It supports a much more active learner’s role, the learner is given the opportunity of sharing the ownership of the classroom and materials learners provide classroom input adapting courses can be used as an awareness development activity (Tomlinson, 2003) 1. facilitates learner involvement 2. promotes the use of materials adaptation 3. apply them also to teacher development Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 3.2 Key Features in Materials Adaptation Here is the List of key features in materials adaptation: ▪ Learner-centeredness and critical awareness development 1. There are very few truly learner-centered, language teaching and learning materials. 2. The materials should put learners at the center of the learning process and make them input providers. 3. Teachers should be facilitators and co-ordinators 4. Materials adaptation, should be shared between - materials developers - teachers and - learners. ▪ Flexibility and choice Materials should be flexible -should provide choice -should enable learners to develop a variety of skills and learning styles -encourage them to experience a wide range of tasks and approaches -they also become more independent learners. Learners themselves become more flexible learners -Learners can be encouraged to experience them all. ▪ Open-endedness and aesthetic experience Originated from (the theory of Aesthetic Response by Rosenblatt (1995) and this refers to the process of reacting spontaneously when reading literary texts (typically represents the immediate response to language and literature), involves interaction between readers, language and texts, Literature and Aesthetic Experience, part of a subjective process and is created every time the text is read or written. ▪ Aesthetic experience and Materials adaptation Aesthetic Experience promotes the subjectivity of texts and their various interpretations. Also, materials should promote an aesthetic experience, they should, not only be based on right/wrong testing and practice but, rather, they should also focus on open-ended tasks and texts. ▪ Relevance To draw a link between the adaptation process and reading open-ended materials, have the potential to become relevant to the learners when they fill those gaps with their ideas, interpretations and discussions. It is only at this Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 level that materials become relevant and potentially more effective for learning development. ▪ Universality Materials should be based on universally appealing topics, culturally provoking, culturally specific but, at the same time, they are present in all cultures. A rich source of this type of topics comes from Literature, life experiences, feelings, relationships. Universality of topics enables learners to focus and gain a better understanding of cultural differences and commonalities (Jiang, 2000). ▪ Authentic and non-authentic input In order to expose the learners to realistic input. Materials should be based on authentic texts. In order to draw the learners’ attention to certain linguistic features with activities based on texts selected from authentic sources a combination of authentic and non-authentic tasks ▪ Provocative topics and tasks In order to make learning more engaging and perhaps also more humanistic. Materials should include topics and activities that can potentially provoke a reaction, provide an aesthetic experience, whether it be positive or negative, that is personal and subjective. The adaptation process is considered at two levels: adapting materials with the purpose of making them effective and relevant to a specific classroom; adapting materials with the purpose of changing their objectives, in order to reduce the distance between research and classroom practice. Developing critical awareness of learning and teaching is the main aim of adapting and evaluating courses; learners can become, the main input providers, the teacher’s role is simply that of facilitator, co-ordinator and monitor. 3.3 Materials and Digital Technology Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age The internet and mobile technology are a sea of information and activities making its’ use during lessons a little daunting, applying Lam and Hampel’s [2007: 71] model for online task development to enable the capabilities of technology to meet the demands of class learning objectives. The initial approach of the model is to scrutinize task design frameworks, for example, Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 cognitive demands and interaction during the task in question. Finally, can the task be carried out to improve communicative competence with a focus on meaning? Paulsen [cited in Kelson 2009] notes that “the effective use of online materials may provide positive spin-offs for learners much the same as if they were immersed in the language and culture while studying abroad”, further noting that students should be directed in the use of technology to aid language acquisition. Learners needs play an important role in technology choice inviting students to learn English through personal interest. Young learners and older students often have strong opinions about current affairs and world news, audio-voice forum websites allow them to share their ideas with others. Learners can listen to and record their opinion on interesting and up-to-date topics. A site ideal for this activity is Voxopop, (http://www.voxopop.com), engaging learners in discussion. Aisha Walker and Goodith White suggest a “blog of the week” WordPress is ideal for this exercise using the following link – http://wordpress.com. When vetted the internet can offer a wealth of materials for English language students. A useful tool in an interactive classroom is scrible.com, (please see below), which allows students and teachers to annotate online texts with highlighter and‘virtual sticky notes. Students can also be encouraged to make ‘intercultural pen friends’, originally set up through the ‘Intercultural E-mail Classroom Connections Program’. Students make pen friends in multi-language classes and stay in touch with them, even when they have left the school. This method is likely to be more valuable than instant messaging where messages are shorter and slang and colloquial English is common. E-mail correspondence is also something that can be used for communications between a student and teacher, sending mail and homework for error correction. This is a time efficient exercise for error correction and also allows the student to have a clear record of their mistakes. Another useful way of having a clear record of students’ writing is through a social networking writing group. Students would all need to be members of the same social networking group, learners could be invited to Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 join the group and it would be kept private so that only the group had access. Students first introduce themselves to the group and would later be asked to write a paragraph every week about something they’ve done during the week. During computer sessions students can be asked to share photographs of places that they have visited and share their sightseeing tips with their peers through the social networking group. Students also can have fun with a website called grammarman, the website allows students to revise various grammar points through comic strips. Eyercize offers students an opportunity to build-up their reading speed with well written, graded texts online, a simple but friendly website that can be used during in-school computer lessons. Bubblar [pictured below] was recommended to me by a peer and allows learners to create photo-stories by downloading pictures from Flickr and inserting speech bubbles to act as a narrative for the events unfolding in the story. As with the comic creators’ teachers can use error correction to aid student accuracy. All of these websites and their apps can be used independently on personal devices and in lessons on an interactive whiteboard for upbeat and technology enhanced lessons. Online Podcasts are ideal for listening exercises, offering authentic texts, training students with the English that they are likely to hear outside the classroom. Mind mapping software has been used to create a narrative using conditional forms. The finished version of the students’ narrative is a clear and error free piece of English, it makes exciting reading for other students, aiding fluency in reading during a light-hearted exercise. Creation of these mind-maps pushes students to use their cognitive skills resulting in deeper understanding of the materials used, [see task based learning – 02.05.16]. Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 Chapter 4 DEVELOPING SPECIFIC TYPES OF MATERIALS 4.1 Materials for the Teaching of Grammar The purpose for teaching grammar is not simply for you to be confident about correcting mistakes in children’s work, nor is it to pass on tricks and techniques to be replicated in a mechanistic way. This does not make children writers or lead to good writing. Teaching grammar effectively is about enabling children to control grammar to express increasingly complex ideas. When grammar is taught well, it can make a significant different to children’s literacy development. Here are 7 key principles to bear in mind when teaching grammar: 1. Build up your own subject knowledge To teach grammar, you need explicit as well as implicit knowledge, to be confident about using the correct terms and explaining these. Don’t just learn the next term you are teaching. It is important to be able to relate new learning to other features and the text as a whole. 2. Give talk a high priority in your classroom Children need to be able to select from a wardrobe of voices that includes Standard English. 3. Remember the purpose of teaching grammar Grammar is not simply the naming of parts of speech or for teaching the rules of English. It needs to be strongly embedded in classroom talk, reading and writing. 4. Teach grammar in context By introducing children to grammatical features and language in context, you will be helping them to internalize these principles. Try not to go for the ready- made solution by using a worksheet from a book. It will make very little difference to children’s use of language and will be meaningless for those learners who are not yet able to think in abstract ways. 5. Read aloud and discuss how authors use grammar Children who read extensively and are read to will have a ‘toolbox’ of structures, patterns and rhythms to draw on. 6. Be systematic Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 Make sure you know what the class you are working with have already learned and what they need to learn now. Link new learning with their prior knowledge. 7. Make learning grammar fun Teaching grammar can involve investigations, problem-solving and language play as part of developing children’s awareness of and interest in how language works. English Grammar Teaching Tools Learning grammar rules doesn't have to be dull. Some of it requires rote memorization, but the approach to teaching has changed. While worksheets will always have their place, task-based learning is starting to dominate the classroom. That is, we don’t just focus on what needs to be taught, but also why it needs to be taught. So, if you’re introducing adjectives, you might express its need when writing a restaurant menu. With the “why” in the forefront of your mind, the sky’s the limit when introducing new grammar tools for your learners. Visual Aids Visual learners abound in the classroom. As such, visual aids will help with retention and build lasting memories in your students’ minds. These are some of the best classroom prompts. Let’s explore a few visual aids that will bring everyone into the fold and make learning fun. Photos This is task-based learning at its finest. Ask your students to bring in a couple photos from home. It can be anything, but give them some suggestions, like pictures of their pets, siblings, or favorite activities. Tape one of each student’s photos on a large poster board. For younger learners, ask them what they see. If someone’s playing soccer, ask them what part of speech “kicking” is. If someone brought in a picture of their new puppy, ask them what part of speech “dog” is. Be sure to make your way around the room and ask each student a question that will allow them to be successful. Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 For older students, you can use this activity as a writing prompt. Select one student’s photo and ask them to write a short story based on what’s happening in the picture. Diagramming Sentences Let’s change gears a little bit from task-based learning. Diagramming is a classic visual aid that still holds an important place in the classroom. Sentence diagrams are not a thing of the past. In fact, they remain tremendously helpful as grammar tools when teaching the various parts of a sentence. While the basic formula for a sentence is subject + verb + direct object, there’s much more variation to it. We also have adjectives, adverbs, and other parts of speech. Really breaking it all down through a diagram on the board that students must also copy into their notebooks is something that will stick with them for many years to come. Game of Opposites Are you working on antonyms? One of the best ways to not only practice antonyms but also draw from recent vocabulary words is to write a single word on the board. Then, ask students to jot down its opposite (there will be times when more than one answer is appropriate). You might write “dark,” to which they’ll write “light.” If you write “tall,” some may write “short.” Others might write “tiny.” Classroom Activities Like visual learning, kinesthetic learning helps new concepts stick. Physical movement is one of the most underrated grammar tools! Whenever you can pair some type of movement with new concepts, it’ll aid in retention. Here are a few ways to get everyone up and learning while practicing core skills. Conjugation Bee Instead of a spelling bee, you can have an irregular verb bee. Irregular verbs are tricky. There’s no rule to teach these verbs, as they refuse to follow the standard rules of grammar. For this exercise: 1. Call out an irregular verb and a verb tense. 2. Ask the next student in line to announce the proper conjugation. You might start with “wake” and ask the student to provide the past tense of that verb (woke). Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 3. If the student is incorrect, they’re “out.” 4. The game continues until only one student remains Grammar Potato This is a fun activity to keep everyone engaged and “on their toes.” The concept is quite simple. Pick a grammar topic that you’d like to focus on, like nouns. Call out the topic, model an example (such as “house”), and then, as you pass the potato, each student will have to call out a noun of their own within a certain time limit. As an added challenge, each student might have to name a noun starting with the last letter of the previous response. So, “house” might be followed by “elephant,” which can then be followed by “table,” and so on. Race to Write Divide the class into two teams. Each student will have a chance to race to the board and write as many vocabulary words as they can, according to the question you pose. Take a look at the vocabulary words you’ve been working on lately. Stick to a certain theme, such as animals, food, or colors, and give each student a turn to run to the board to answer your question. For example, you might ask, “Which fruits are eaten at breakfast?” or, “What animals can you see at the zoo?” 4.2 Materials for Teaching Vocabulary Vocabulary is the knowledge of words and word meanings. As Steven Stahl (2005) puts it, "Vocabulary knowledge is knowledge; the knowledge of a word not only implies a definition, but also implies how that word fits into the world." Vocabulary knowledge is not something that can ever be fully mastered; it is something that expands and deepens over the course of a lifetime. Instruction in vocabulary involves far more than looking up words in a dictionary and using the words in a sentence. Vocabulary is acquired incidentally through indirect exposure to words and intentionally through explicit instruction in specific words and word-learning strategies. According to Michael Graves (2000), there are four components of an effective vocabulary program: 1. wide or extensive independent reading to expand word knowledge 2. instruction in specific words to enhance comprehension of texts containing Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 those words 3. instruction in independent word-learning strategies, and 4. word consciousness and word-play activities to motivate and enhance learning Components of vocabulary instruction The National Reading Panel (2000) concluded that there is no single researchbased method for teaching vocabulary. From its analysis, the panel recommended using a variety of direct and indirect methods of vocabulary instruction. Intentional vocabulary teaching Specific Word Instruction Selecting Words to Teach Rich and Robust Instruction Word-Learning Strategies Dictionary Use Morphemic Analysis Cognate Awareness (ELL) Contextual Analysis According to the National Reading Panel (2000), explicit instruction of vocabulary is highly effective. To develop vocabulary intentionally, students should be explicitly taught both specific words and word-learning strategies. To deepen students' knowledge of word meanings, specific word instruction should be robust (Beck et al., 2002). Seeing vocabulary in rich contexts provided by authentic texts, rather than in isolated vocabulary drills, produces robust vocabulary learning (National Reading Panel, 2000). Such instruction often does not begin with a definition, for the ability to give a definition is often Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 the result of knowing what the word means. Rich and robust vocabulary instruction goes beyond definitional knowledge; it gets students actively engaged in using and thinking about word meanings and in creating relationships among words. Research shows that there are more words to be learned than can be directly taught in even the most ambitious program of vocabulary instruction. Explicit instruction in word-learning strategies gives students tools for independently determining the meanings of unfamiliar words that have not been explicitly introduced in class. Since students encounter so many unfamiliar words in their reading, any help provided by such strategies can be useful. Word-learning strategies include dictionary use, morphemic analysis, and contextual analysis. For ELLs whose language shares cognates with English, cognate awareness is also an important strategy. Dictionary use teaches students about multiple word meanings, as well as the importance of choosing the appropriate definition to fit the particular context. Morphemic analysis is the process of deriving a word's meaning by analyzing its meaningful parts, or morphemes. Such word parts include root words, prefixes, and suffixes. Contextual analysis involves inferring the meaning of an unfamiliar word by scrutinizing the text surrounding it. Instruction in contextual analysis generally involves teaching students to employ both generic and specific types of context clues. Fostering word consciousness A more general way to help students develop vocabulary is by fostering word consciousness, an awareness of and interest in words. Word consciousness is not an isolated component of vocabulary instruction; it needs to be taken into account each and every day (Scott and Nagy, 2004). It can be developed at all times and in several ways: through encouraging adept diction, through word play, and through research on word origins or histories. According to Graves (2000), "If we can get students interested in playing with words and language, then we are at least halfway to the goal of creating the sort of word- conscious students who will make words a lifetime interest." Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 Multiple exposures in multiple contexts One principle of effective vocabulary learning is to provide multiple exposures to a word's meaning. There is great improvement in vocabulary when students encounter vocabulary words often (National Reading Panel, 2000). According to Stahl (2005), students probably have to see a word more than once to place it firmly in their long-term memories. "This does not mean mere repetition or drill of the word," but seeing the word in different and multiple contexts. In other words, it is important that vocabulary instruction provide students with opportunities to encounter words repeatedly and in more than one context. Restructuring of vocabulary tasks Findings of the National Reading Panel Intentional instruction of vocabulary items is required for specific texts. Repetition and multiple exposures to vocabulary items are important. Learning in rich contexts is valuable for vocabulary learning. Vocabulary tasks should be restructured as necessary. Vocabulary learning should entail active engagement in learning tasks. Computer technology can be used effectively to help teach vocabulary. Vocabulary can be acquired through incidental learning. How vocabulary is assessed and evaluated can have differential effects on instruction. Dependence on a single vocabulary instructional method will not result in optimal learning. It is often assumed that when students do not learn new vocabulary words, they simply need to practice the words some more. Research has shown, however, that it is often the case that students simply do not understand the instructional task involved (National Reading Panel, 2000). Rather than focus only on the words themselves, teachers should be certain that students fully understand the instructional tasks (Schwartz and Raphael, 1985). The restructuring of learning materials or strategies in various ways often can lead to increased vocabulary acquisition, especially for low-achieving or at- risk students (National Reading Panel, 2000). According to Kamil (2004), "once students know what is expected of them in a vocabulary task, they often learn rapidly." Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 Incidental vocabulary learning The scientific research on vocabulary instruction reveals that most vocabulary is acquired incidentally through indirect exposure to words. Students can acquire vocabulary incidentally by engaging in rich oral-language experiences at home and at school, listening to books read aloud to them, and reading widely on their own. Reading volume is very important in terms of long-term vocabulary development (Cunningham and Stanovich, 1998). Kamil and Hiebert (2005) reason that extensive reading gives students repeated or multiple exposures to words and is also one of the means by which students see vocabulary in rich contexts. Cunningham (2005) recommends providing structured read-aloud and discussion sessions and extending independent reading experiences outside school hours to encourage vocabulary growth in students. Instruction for English language learners (ELLs) An increasing number of students come from homes in which English is not the primary language. From 1979 to 2003, the number of students who spoke English with difficulty increased by 124 percent (National Center for Education Statistics, 2005). In 2003, students who spoke English with difficulty represented approximately 5 percent of the school population-up from 3 percent in 1979. Not surprisingly, vocabulary development is especially important for Englishlanguage learners (ELLs). Poor vocabulary is a serious issue for these students (Calderon et al., 2005). ELLs who have deficits in their vocabulary are less able to comprehend text at grade level than their English-only (EO) peers (August et al., 2005). Findings indicate that research-based strategies used with EO students are also effective with ELLs, although the strategies must be adapted to strengths and needs of ELLs(Calderon et al., 2005). Diane August and her colleagues (2005) suggest several strategies that appear to be especially valuable for building the vocabularies of ELLs. These strategies include taking advantage of students' first language if the language shares cognates with English, teaching the meaning of basic words, and providing sufficient review and reinforcement. Because English and Spanish share a large number of cognate pairs, the first instructional strategy is especially Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 useful for Spanish-speaking ELLs. These students can draw on their cognate knowledge as a means of figuring out unfamiliar words in English. A second instructional strategy for ELLs is learning the meanings of basic words— words that most EO students already know. Basic words can be found on lists, such as the Dale-Chall List (Chall and Dale, 1995). A third instructional strategy that ELLs particularly benefit from is review and reinforcement. These methods include read-alouds, teacher-directed activities, listening to audiotapes, activities to extend word use outside of the classroom, and parent involvement. Strategies for ELLs: Take advantage of students' first language Teach the meaning of basic words Review and reinforcement Lesson model for: Word consciousness Benchmarks ability to interpret literal and figurative meanings of idioms ability to research origins of idioms Grade level Kindergarten and above Grouping whole class small group or pairs Materials small plastic toy horses drawing paper crayons or markers dictionaries Animal idioms An idiom is a phrase or expression in which the entire meaning is different from the usual meanings of the individual words within it. Idioms are fun to work with because they are part of everyday vocabulary. Students enjoy working with figurative meanings, as well as imagining possible literal meanings for the expressions. They also enjoy finding out about the origins of idiomatic expressions, some of which are very old. Introducing idioms by topic Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 can make them easier for students to remember. This sample lesson model focuses on introducing idioms that make use of animals or animal comparisons. Explanation Tell students that an idiom is an expression that cannot be fully understood by the meanings of the individual words that are contained within it. The meaning of the whole idiom has little, often nothing, to do with the meanings of the words taken one by one. Point out to students that idioms are often used in writing or speech to make expression more colorful and that some of the most colorful English idioms make use of animals or animal comparisons. Explain that many idioms have interesting origins that may not make literal sense to us today, but made perfectly good sense during the times in which they were coined. Tell students that the expression "to hold your horses" is an idiom. Demonstrate its literal meaning by holding a bunch of small plastic toy horses in your hand. Tell students that when someone tells you "to hold your horses" it would be silly to think that they wanted you to hold a bunch of horses in your hand. The whole expression "to hold your horses" actually means "to slow down, wait a minute, or be more patient." For example, if you were impatiently waiting for your sister to get off the phone, your sister might say to you, "Hold your horses. I'll be off the phone in a minute!" Tell students that "to be raining cats and dogs" is another idiom. Ask students whether, if someone said it's "raining cats and dogs," they would expect to look up and see animals falling from the sky. Then explain to them that "raining cats and dogs" is used to describe when it's raining really heavily or really hard. Ask volunteers to describe a time they remember when it was "raining cats and dogs." Ask students to draw pictures of the literal meaning of either "to hold your horses" or "to be raining cats and dogs." Then have them take turns showing their illustration and using the idiom correctly in a context sentence. Collaborative practice Tell students that they are going to work together in groups to make a drawing of an animal idiom's literal meaning and then act out its real, or figurative, meaning. They will see if the drawings and skits they make provide enough information for their classmates to figure out what the idiom really means. To begin, select a group of three Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 students to demonstrate the activity. Tell this group that their idiom is "to let the cat out of the bag" and that this idiom means "to give away a secret." Divide the group tasks as follows: One student will draw the idiom the way it would look if it meant literally what it said: by drawing a sketch of a cat leaping out of a paper bag. This student labels the drawing with the idiom, "to let the cat out of the bag." The other two students develop a brief skit about the figurative meaning of the idiom: "to give away a secret." For example, they could develop a simple scene where someone finds out about a surprise birthday party, because a brother or sister gives it away beforehand. The last line could be: "You let the cat out of the bag." When the group is finished, have them show the idiom's literal meaning in the drawing, and then act out its figurative meaning in the skit. Have the group challenge their classmates to guess the idiom's figurative, or intended, meaning and then correctly use the idiom in a sentence: Nancy let the cat out of the bag when she told Nick about the surprise birthday party. When the whole class has understood how this activity works, assign a different animal idiom, with its figurative meaning, to other groups of students. Each group then works out its plan for making the drawing and acting out the skit. Have the groups take turns demonstrating their idioms to the class, so the class can guess the idiom's figurative meaning and use it in a sentence. Animal idioms to have ants in your pants to take the bull by the horns to let the cat out of the bag to have the cat get your tongue to be raining cats and dogs the straw that broke the camel's back to have a cow to wait until the cows come home to be in the doghouse to let sleeping dogs lie to be in a fine kettle of fish to seem a little fishy to live high on the hog Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 to look a gift horse in the mouth to eat like a horse to hear it straight from the horse's mouth to hold your horses to put the cart before the horse to change horses in midstream English-language learner: Learning about idioms can be particularly helpful for ELLs because the gap between the literal meaning of individual words and the intended meaning of the expression often causes trouble in translation. Lesson model for: Word-meaning recall Benchmark ability to remember word meanings Grade level Grade 3 and above Grouping whole class small group or pairs individual Sample texts "Alaska Adventure" (Resources) "Studying the Sky" (Resources) Keyword method Mnemonic strategies are systematic procedures for enhancing memory. The word mnemonic comes from Mnemosyne, the name of Greek goddess of memory. The keyword method, a mnemonic strategy, has been shown to be effective with students who have learning difficulties and those who are at risk for educational failure. According to the National Reading Panel, the keyword method may lead to significant improvement in students' recall of new vocabulary words. This sample lesson model targets two contextualized vocabulary words. The same model can be adapted and used to enhance recall of vocabulary words in any commercial reading program. Direct Explanation Explain to students that you are going to show them how to use the keyword Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 method, a useful strategy for remembering the meanings of vocabulary words. Tell them you are going to model the strategy twice, using the words archipelago and lunar. Teach/Model Define the target word Read aloud the following sentence from "Alaska Adventure." The Aleutian archipelago stretches for more than a thousand miles. Then tell students that an archipelago is "a group of islands." Think of a keyword for the target word Say: To help me remember the meaning of the word archipelago, a group of islands, I am going to think of another word, called a "keyword." The keyword is a word that sounds like archipelago and also is a word that can be easily pictured. My keyword for archipelago is pelican. Pelican sounds like archipelago and is the name of a water bird with a very large bill. Link the keyword with the meaning of the target word Explain to students that the next step is to create an image of the keyword pelican and the meaning of the target word archipelago interacting in some way. Tell them it is important that the keyword and the meaning actually interact and are not simply presented in the same picture. On the board, sketch a picture of a pelican flying over a group of small islands. Say: Look at the picture of the pelican flying over the group of islands. Ask: Pelican is the keyword for what word? (archipelago) Say: Yes, archipelago. To recall the meaning of the word archipelago, imagine a pelican flying over a group of small islands. Recall the meaning of the target word Tell students that when they see or hear the word archipelago, they should first think of its keyword and then try to remember the picture of the keyword and the meaning interacting. Ask: What is the keyword for archipelago? (pelican) In the sketch, where was the pelican flying? (over a group of islands) Say: Right, over a group of islands. Ask: So, what does archipelago mean? (a group of islands) English Language-Learners: Point out to Spanish-speaking ELLs that archipelago and Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 archipelago are cognates. Lesson model for: Contextual analysis Benchmarks ability to recognize types of semantic context clues ability to use context clues to infer word meanings Grade level Grade 4 and above Prerequisite Context Clues Grouping whole class small group or pairs individual Teaching chart Types of Helpful Context Clues (Resources) Materials copies of Types of Helpful Context clues chart transparencies blue, red, and green overhead transparency markers Introducing types of context clues Instruction in specific types of context clues is an effective approach for teaching students to use context to infer word meanings. Baumann and his colleagues recommend teaching five types of context clues: definition, synonym, antonym, example, and general. This sample lesson model can be adapted and used to enhance contextual analysis instruction in any commercial reading program. Direct explanation Tell students that they can sometimes use context clues to figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word they come across in their reading. Remind them that context clues are the words, phrases, and sentences surrounding an unfamiliar word that can give hints or clues to its meaning. Caution students that although these clues can prove to be helpful, they can sometimes be misleading. Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 Teach/Model Definition context clues Give students copies of the Types of Helpful Context Clues chart. Briefly go over the chart, identifying the types of context clues and discussing the example for each one. Tell students that they should refer to the chart as they learn more about the five different types of context clues. Explain to students that in a definition clue the author provides the reader with the specific definition, or meaning, of a word right in the sentence. Point out that words such as are, is, means, and refers to can signal that a definition clue may follow. Then print the following sentences on a transparency: A conga is a barrel-shaped drum. At night you can see constellations, or groups of stars, in the sky. Read aloud the first sentence. Say: I'm going to look for a context clue to help me understand the meaning of the word conga. Underline conga in blue. Say: In the sentence, I see the word is. The word is can signal a definition context clue. Underline is in red. Say: The phrase a barrel-shaped drum follows the word is. Underline the context clue in green. Say: A conga is a barrel-shaped drum. The author has given a definition context clue. Grow your Vocabulary- Materials for Teaching Vocabulary *Vocabulary teaching has the goal of supporting language use. There have been considerable debates about how can be done. The core of the debate involves the role played by decontextualized vocabulary learning. The arguments against such learning usually include the following points: ▪ Deliberate learning can only account for a small proportion of the vocabulary knowledge of learners. ▪ Deliberate learning not in a communicative context does not result in much Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 learning. ▪ Deliberate learning not in a communicative context does not result in vocabulary use in communicative contexts. This chapter describes three ideas that are very important in vocabulary development. First, a planned approach to vocabulary development not be much more effective than dealing with vocabulary in ad hoc or opportunity ways. Second, there are learning conditions that enhance the learning vocabulary, and a major goal of materials development should be to design materials that are likely to create these conditions. Third, these conditions need to occur in activities that go across the four roughly equal strands of; o Learning from meaning-focused input o Learning from meaning-focused output o Deliberate language-focused learning, and o Fluency development Planning vocabulary learning Studies of the statistical description of vocabulary confirm that there is a relatively small group of words, that are much more frequent and useful in a very wide range of language uses than other words in the language. These high frequency words are the essential basis of all language use and deserve a great deal of attention in language teaching material. Unless learners have very special needs, it makes little sense to focus on other vocabulary before most of these high frequency words have been well-learned. Vocabulary levels and text coverage Vocabulary level Number of word Percentage (%) Sources families coverage of a text High frequency 2000 80 West (1953) words Academic 570 10 Coxhead (2000) vocabulary Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 Low Frequency 11, 000 5 words Proper nouns - 4.5 Designing Input Activities to Encourage Vocabulary Learning ▪ Listening to a text and having to answer questions ▪ Glossaries ▪ Extensive reading The learner adapts the activity’s application: a. requires use of the target word b. requires the learner to extend the meaning of the word c. requires the word to be used in a linguistic context d. requires the learner to extend the meaning “The best glossaries are at the side of the reading texts.” Designing Output Activities to help Vocabulary Learning Work on communicative activities has shown that careful design of written input can have a major effect on vocabulary learning. Some design requirements and features of activities to support vocabulary learning are the following: ▪ The written must contain L2 target words. ▪ The vocabulary must be highlighted and repeated. ▪ The communicative task must have a clear outcome. ▪ It must split information, jobs, or roles. ▪ The task should be broken into a series of steps. ▪ Supports the understanding of the target vocabulary. Fluency Development The main goal is making language items readily available for fluent use. Fluency is likely to develop if the following conditions are met: 1. The learners take part in activities where all the language items are within that previous experience. 2. The activity is meaning focused. 3. There is support and encouragement for the learner to perform at a higher than normal level. Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|38512052 Example of fluency activity The 4/3/2 technique which was devised by Maurice (1983). In this technique, students work in pairs with one acting as the speaker and the other as listener. The speaker talks in four minutes on a topic while the partner listens. Then the pairs change with each speaker giving the same information to a new partner in three minutes, followed by a further change and a two-minute talk. Approaches to developing fluency Range of activities These examples of activities put into practice the conditions of easy demands, meaning focus, and opportunity to perform at a higher-than-normal level. ▪ Blown-up books: useful way of using listening to introduce to reading. ▪ Listening to stories: suitable for students who read well but whose listening skills are poor. ▪ Listening corner: learner listen to tape recorded stories. ▪ Speed reading training and extensive reading with texts with unknown vocabulary. ▪ Repeated reading: same text is reread several times. Approaches to developing fluency The well ordered system approach The well beaten path approach to fluency The richness approac Downloaded by LYNDEE MAE LINDONGAN ([email protected])