Computer Architecture Evolution PDF

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW AND HISTORY OF COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE  What is a Computer? A computer is used to perform some useful work and for communication. The work of the computer can be characterized by an input-process-output...

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW AND HISTORY OF COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE  What is a Computer? A computer is used to perform some useful work and for communication. The work of the computer can be characterized by an input-process-output model; a machine that accepts data (Input Data), performs certain operations on that data (Process the Data), and presents the results of those operations (Output on Screen or Paper). ▪ Input: keyboard, mouse, scanner, punch cards ▪ Processing: CPU executes the computer program ▪ Output: monitor, printer, fax machine ▪ Storage: hard drive, optical media, flash drive, magnetic tape Every operation on input-processing-output model requires three important components: ▪The computer hardware Processes data by executing instructions Provides input and output ▪The software Instructions executed by the system ▪The data that is being manipulated Fundamental representation of facts and observations Computer systems have evolved from stand-alone machines into a network computer. Therefore, a fourth component must be considered: ▪ Communication component Sharing data and processing among different systems  Class of Computer Organization and Architecture ▪ The study of internal working, structuring and implementation of a computer system. ▪ Many computer manufacturers offer a family of computer models, all with the same architecture but with differences in organization.  What is Computer Architecture ▪ Attributes of a system visible to a programmer. ▪ E.g. Physical address memory, instructions set, addressing mode, registers  Two Architecture Family 1. Intel X86 ▪Runs in everything from supercomputers to servers to desktops and laptops. ▪Not common in embedded system 2. ARM – Advance RISC machines ▪The most widely used embedded processor, used in cell phones, remote sensor equipment ▪Examples of architecture are SPARC, Power, PowerPC, MIPS,Android  What is Computer organization ▪ The operational units and their interconnections that realize the architectural specifications. E.g. : interface, signal ▪ Architecture describes what the computer does and organization describes how it does it. COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE EVOLUTION o Zero Generation o First Generation o Second Generation o Third Generation o Fourth Generation o Fifth Generation  THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0) : MECHANICAL COMPUTERS (1642-1945) ? Mechanical calculating machine ▪ Inventor : Blaise Pascal ▪ First person to build a working calculating machine. ▪ The programming language Pascal is named after him.  THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0) : MECHANICAL COMPUTERS (1642-1945) ? Mechanical calculating machine - Continued ▪ The device was built in 1642. ▪ Could only do addition and subtraction. ▪ It’s entirely mechanical, using gears and powered by a hand-operated crank.  THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0) Step Reckoner: mechanical calculating machine ▪ Inventor: Gottfried von Leibniz ▪ Took Pascal’s invention a step further. ▪ In 1671, he introduced Step Reckoner, a mechanical machine that not only can add and subtract, but also multiply, divide and evaluate square roots by series of stepped additions. ▪ He strongly advocated the use of binary numbering system, which is fundamental in modern computers’ operation.  THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0) Loom ▪ Inventor : Joseph Marie Jacquard ▪ Developed in 1801, it used punched cards to control the pattern woven into cloth. The program provided by the punched cards controlled rods that raised and lowered different threads in the correct sequence to print a particular pattern. ▪ In the years to come, variations on Jacquard’s punched cards would find variety of uses, including the storing of programs for computers. Jacquard’s Loom  THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0) Difference Engine ▪ Inventor : Charles Babbage ▪ Mechanical device - could only subtract and add, designed to compute tables of numbers useful for naval navigation. ▪ Was to run on single algorithm, the method of finite differences using polynomials. Difference Engine ▪ Built in 1822.  THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0) ? Analytical Engine Inventor : Charles Babbage in 1834. Successor of Difference Engine. It had FOUR components: the store (memory), the mill (computation unit), the input section (punched card reader) and the output section (punched and printed output). Intended to employ several features subsequently used in modern computers, including sequential control, branching and looping.  THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0) ? Analytical Engine General purpose - able to carry out different instructions/ computations. Ada Augusta Byron, the Countess of Lovelace worked closely with Babbage and developed many of the fundamental ideas in programming and program design, including the concepts of branches and loops. Ada was thus the world’s 1st computer programmer. A modern programming language Ada® is named in her honor. Analytical Engine  THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0) ABC - Atanasoff and Berry Computer ▪ Inventor : John V. Atanasoff and Clifford Berry. ▪ Devised in 1937 to solve physics equations that Atanasoff was working on that time. ▪ It was the first binary-based machine. ▪ Has an arithmetic/logic unit with thirty units that can do addition/subtraction, a rotating drum memory that held thirty binary numbers of fifty digits each, and punched card input.  THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0) ? ABC - Atanasoff and Berry Computer Each punched card held five fifteen-digit decimal numbers. These numbers were converted to binary as they entered the machine. Although it has limitations, ABC was an important path mark that led to later significant advances in computer design. The ABC  THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1) : VACUUM TUBES (1945 – 1955) The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) ▪ Inventor : John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at The University of Pennsylvania. ▪ Designed and built between 1943 and 1946. ▪ It contained 18,000 vacuum tubes and 1500 relays. ▪ Had 20 registers, each capable of holding a 10-digit decimal number. ▪ 10 feet tall, occupied 1,000 square feet of floor- space, weighed in at approximately 30 tons  THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1) : VACUUM TUBES (1945 – 1955) The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) ▪ The system could also provide printed output. ▪ Programs could not be stored internally but were hard wired (manually) with external “patch panels” and toggle switches. ▪ ENIAC is generally considered as the first all-electronic digital computer. ▪ ENIAC led directly to the development of UNIVAC I, the world’s first commercially available computer in 1951. THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1) The ENIAC The UNIVAC I  THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1) The consultant in the ENIAC project, John Von Neumann, came up with the idea of stored program. Program could be represented in digital form in the computer’s memory, along with the data. His basic design is known as the Von Neumann Machine. It had 5 basic parts: the memory, the ALU, the program CU, and the input and output equipment.  THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1) ? The EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) Developed by Mauchly and Eckert based on Von Neumann Machine. Developed at the University of Pennsylvania. EDVAC was completed in 1950. It stored its instructions electronically, using the binary system for instruction coding and input. The EDVAC was one of the first two-stored program computers.  THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1) ? The IAS machine. ▪ Developed by John Von Neumann in 1947 at the Institute of Advanced Studies in Princeton. ▪ Completed in 1951 and fully operational in 1952 ▪ The machine was a binary computer with a 40-bit word, storing two 20-bit instructions in each word.  THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1) ? The IAS machine. The memory was 1024 words. Negative numbers were represented in "two's complement" format. Two registers: the Accumulator (AC) and Multiplier/Quotient (MQ). Importantly, the IAS machine was the first design to mix programs and data in a single memory.  THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1) ? The IAS machine. ▪ It used about 2300 tubes in its circuitry. The addition time was 62 microseconds and the multiplication time was 713 microseconds. ▪ It was an asynchronous machine, meaning that there was no central clock regulating the timing of the instructions. One instruction started executing when the previous one finished. THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1) The IAS  THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1) ? The EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator). ▪ The machine, having been inspired by John von Neumann's seminal EDVAC report, was constructed by Maurice Wilkes and his team at the University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory in England. ▪ EDSAC was the world's first practical stored program electronic computer, although not the first stored program computer (that honor goes to the Small-Scale Experimental Machine). THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1) The EDSAC THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1)  THE 2ND GENERATION : TRANSISTORS (1955-1965) ▪ The device that characterized the second generation computers was the transistors. ▪ Transistor was invented in Bell Labs in 1948 by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley. ▪ Transistors were made of a semi-conducting material and control the flow of electricity through the circuits. 34  THE 2ND GENERATION : TRANSISTORS (1955-1965) Allows computers to become physically smaller, more powerful, more reliable and even faster than before. Transistors were less expansive and smaller, required less electricity and emitted less heat than the vacuum tubes. Fewer transistors than tubes were required to operate a computer. Transistors were not fragile as vacuum tubes, and they lasted longer.  THE 2ND GENERATION (GEN. 2) ▪ The TX-0 ▪ The first transistorized computer built at M.I.T. This machine was merely intended as a device to test the much fancier TX-2. ▪ PDP-1 ▪ Manufactured by DEC in 1961. It had 4K of 18-bit words and a cycle time of 5 microsec. It cost $120,000. ▪ One of the PDP-1’s many innovations was a visual display (CRT) and the ability to plot points anywhere on its 512 x 512 screen. ▪ A few years later DEC introduced the PDP-8 which uses a single bus, the omnibus.  THE 2ND GENERATION (GEN. 2) ▪ IBM 7090 ▪ The performance was double that of PDP-1. It was the fastest computer in the world at that time. Cost millions of dollars. Later IBM introduced the 7094. Both 7090 and 7094 marked the end of ENIAC type machines. ▪ CDC 6600 ▪ Introduced by CDC. A highly parallel machine. It had several functional units for and all of them could run in parallel. ▪ The Burroughs B5000  THE 3RD GENERATION : INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (1965-1980) ▪ Signified the beginning of third generation computers. ▪ Integrated circuits (ICs) were single, complete electronic semiconductor circuits contained on pieces of silicon, sometimes called chips. ▪ ICs could be manufactured by machinery, which ultimately resulted in a lower cost. ▪ The concept of IC was developed by Jack Kilby.  THE 3RD GENERATION : INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (1965-1980) ▪ Memory technology improved. ▪ By 1969, as many as 1,000 transistors could be built on a chip of silicon. ▪ Magnetic disks were improved and were used more for storage. ▪ Monitors and keyboards were introduced for data input and output.  THE 3RD GENERATION : INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (1965-1980) ▪ In this generation Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multiprogramming Operating System were used. ▪ High level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.  Advantages of ICs ▪ Smaller in size compare to transistor, more reliable and less energy ▪ Could be used for high level languages. ▪ Used mouse and keyboard for input. ▪ Used fan for heat discharge to prevent damage. ▪ Maintenance cost was low because hardware failure is rare. ▪ Commercial production increased.  THE 4TH GENERATION : PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND VLSI (1980 – 1999) ▪ The significant distinction : techniques of implementation of integrated circuits by using large-scale integration (LSI) of chips with several thousand transistors. ▪ In the mid 1970’s the development of very large scale integration (VLSI) produced a chip containing a microprocessor. ▪ The development of VLSI made the development of the microcomputer possible (PC revolution).  THE 4TH GENERATION : PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND VLSI (1980 – 1999) ▪ The increased power of these small computers meant they could be linked, creating networks. Which ultimately led to the development, birth and rapid evolution of the Internet. ▪ Other major advances during this period have been the Graphical user interface (GUI), the mouse and more recently the astounding advances in laptop capability and hand-held devices. Apple 1 developed by Steve Apple 11 (color personal computer) Wozniack and Steve Jobs (1975) developed in 1976 announce in 1981 The first Apple GUI PC named Apple Macintosh (1984)  The first IBM personal computer is IBM PC (1981)  Advantages of 4th generation computers ▪ More powerful and reliable than previous generations. ▪ Small in size ▪ Fast processing power with less power consumption ▪ Fan for heat discharging and thus to keep cold. ▪ No air conditioning required. ▪ Totally general purpose ▪ Less need of repair. ▪ Cheapest among all generations ▪ All types of high level languages can be used in this type of computers  The 5TH Generation : Artificial Intelligence, Neural Networks, Digital/Analog Hybrids, Web Computing (2000 – current) ▪ The VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components. ▪ This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. ▪ All the Higher level languages like C and C++, Java,.Net etc. are used in this generation.  5th Generation ▪ AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means and method of making computers think like human beings. ▪ AI includes: – Robotics – Neural networks – Game Playing – Development of expert systems to make decisions in real life situations. – Natural language understanding and generation.  Main features of 5th generation ▪ ULSI technology ▪ Development of true Artificial Intelligence ▪ Development of Natural Language Processing ▪ Advancement in Parallel Processing ▪ Advancement in Superconductor technology ▪ More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features ▪ Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates