BIT Unit 1 and 2 PDF

NOTE: JUST FOR REFERENCE  INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER Definition A computer is an electronic machine, devised for performing calculations and controlling operations that can be expressed either in logical or numerical terms.  Applications The applications domain of a...

NOTE: JUST FOR REFERENCE  INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER Definition A computer is an electronic machine, devised for performing calculations and controlling operations that can be expressed either in logical or numerical terms.  Applications The applications domain of a computer depends totally on human creativity and imagination it covers a huge area of applications including education, industries, government medicine, scientific research, low and even music and arts. Millions of complex calculations can be done in a mere fraction of time Difficult decisions can be made with certain accuracy for comparatively little cost CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER Speed Computer process data at an extremely fast rate – millions of instructions per second in few seconds, a computer can perform a huge task that a normal human being may take days or even years to complete. The speed of a computer is calculated in Mhz Accuracy Besides efficiency, computer is accurate as well. The level of accuracy depends the instructions and the type of machine being used. Diligence Computer being a machine does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness and lack of concentration. 1|Page Reliability Reliability is the measurement of performance of a computer, which is measured against some predetermined standard for operation without any failure. Storage capability The main memory of the computer is relatively small and it can hold only a certain amount of information, therefore, the data is stored on secondary storage devices such as magnetic tape or disks. Versatility It can perform multiple takes simultaneously with great ease. For example, at one moment it can be used to draft a letter, another moment it can be used to play music an in between, one can print a document as well. All this work is possible by changing the program. Resource sharing It made the sharing of costly resources like printer possible. Apart from device sharing data and information can also be shared among group of computers, thus creating a large information and knowledge base.  EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS In the beginning, when the task was simply counting or adding, people used either their fingers or pebbles along lines in the sand. In order to simplify the process of counting, people in Asia Minor built a counting device called abacus. This device allowed users to do calculations using a system of sliding beads arranged on a rack. With the passage of time, many computing devices such as Napier bones and slide rule were invented. In 1642, a French mathematician, Blaise Pascal invented the first functional automatic calculator. This brass rectangular box, also called a Pascaline, used eight movable dios to adds sums eight figures long. In 1694, german mathematician Gottfried wilhem von Leibniz extended pascal’s design to perform multiplication, division and to find square root. This machine is known as Stepped Reckoner. The real beginnings of computers as we know them today, however, lay with an English mathematics professor, Charles Babbage. In 1822, he proposed a machine to perform differential equations, called a Difference Engine. In 1889, Herman Hollerith, who worked for US census bureau, also applied the Jacquard loom concept to computing. 2|Page Hollerith’s method used cards to store data, which he fed into a machine that compelled the results mechanically. Mark I, which was built as a partnership between Harvard Aiken and IBM in 1944. This electronic calculating machine used relays and electromagnetic components to replace mechanical components In 1946, John Eclcert and John Mauchy developed ENIAC (electronic numerical integrator and calculator) Thus computer used electronic vacuum tubes to make internal parts of the computer Eckert and mauchy also proposed the development of EDVAC ( electronic discrete variable automatic computer. It was the first electronic computer to use the stored program concept introduced by John von Neumann. In 1949, at the Cambridge university, Maurice wilkes developed EDSAC (electronic delay storage automatic calculator) This machine used mercury delay lines for memory and vacuum tubes for logic. The Eckert – mauchy corporation manufactured UNIVAC ( universal automatic computer) in 1951 and its implementation marked the real beginning of the computer era.  COMPUTER GENERATIONS First Generation (1940-56) : Vacuum Tube First generation computer were vacuum tubes/thermionic value based machines these computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. A magnetic drum is a metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron-oxide material on which data and programs can be stored. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape and output was in the form of printouts. For example: ENIAC, EDVAC AND UNIVAC. Characteristics of First Generation Computers. These computers were based on vacuum tube technology. These were the fastest computing devices of their time. These computers were very large, and required a lot of space for installation. These were non-portable and very slow equipment’s. Second Generations (1956-63): Transistors A transistor is made up of semiconductor material like germanium and silicon. It usually had three leads and performed electrical functions such as voltage, current or power amplification with low power requirement. Since transistor is a small device, the physical size of computers was greatly reduced. 3|Page Computers became smaller, faster, cheaper, energy-efficient, and more reliable than their predecssors. Magnetic cores- were used as primary memory and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. However, they still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output. For example: PDP – 8 , IBM 1401 and IBM 7090 Characterstics of Second Generation Computer. These machines were based on transistor technology These were smaller as compared to the first-generation computers. These were more portable and generated less amount of heat. Third Generation (1964 – Early 1970), Integrated Circuits The development of the integrated circuit was the trait of the third-generation computer. Also called an IC, an integrated circuit consists of a single chip with many components such as transistors and resistors fabricated on it. Integrated circuit replaced several individually wired transistor. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with operating system. For example : NCR 395 and B6500 Characteristic of Third Generation Computer These computers were based on integrated circuit (IC) technology. They were able to reduce computational time from micro seconds to nano seconds. Extensive use of high – level language became possible Fourth Generation (Early (1970 – Till Date) Microprocessors) The technology of this generation was still based on the intergrated circuit, these have been made readily available to use because of the development of the microprocessor. The fourth-generation computers led to an era of large scale integration (LSI) and very large scale integration (VLSI) technology. LSI technology allowed thousands of transistors to be constructed on one small slice of silicon material whereas VLSI squeezed hundreds of thousands of components. ULTRA – large scale integration (ULSI) increased that number into millions the fourth generation computer became more powerful compact, reliable and affordable. For example: apple ii, attair 8800 and CRAY-1 Characteristics of Fourth Generation Computers Fourth generation computers are microprocessor-based systems 4|Page  These computers are very small GUI and pointing devices enable users to learn to use the computer quickly Interconnection of computers leads to better communication and resource sharing. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Artificial Intelligence A computer would learn from its mistakes and possess the skill of experts the starting point for the fifth generation of computers has been set in the early 1990. The expert system it defined as a computer information system that attempts to mimic the thought process and reasoning of experts in specific areas three characteristics can be identified with the fifth-generation computer these are. Mega chips: Fifth generation computers will use super large scale integrated (SLSI) chips, which will result in the production of microprocessor having millions of electronic components on a single chip. Parallel processing: A computer using parallel processing accesses several instructions at once and works on them at the same time through use of multiple central processing units. Artificial intelligence: (AI): AI comprises a group of related technologies expert systems (ES), natural language processing (NLP) speech recognition, vision recognition and robotics.  CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS Four major categories: micro, mini, mainframe and super computers Micro computers A microcomputer is a small, low cost digital computer, which usually consists of a microprocessor, a storage unit, an input channel and an output channel, all of which may be on one chip inserted into are or several pc boards. IBM – pc,Pentium 100, ibm-pc Pentium 200 and Apple Macintosh are some of the example of micro computers 5|Page Micro computers include desktop, laptop and hand – held models such as PDAS (personal) digital assistants. Desktop computer Desktop computer also known as personal computer (pc) is principally intended per stand alone use by an individual micro computer typically consist of a system unit a display monitor, a keyboard internal hard disk storage and other peripheral devices. Some of the major personal computer manufactures are Apple, IBM, Dell and Hewlett Packard. Laptop A laptop is a portable computer that is a user can carry it around. Laptops are small computer enclosing all the basic features of a normal desktop computer. The biggest advantage of this computer is that one can use this computer anywhere and at any time, especially when are is travelling. Hand held computers A hard-held, also called personal digital assistant (PDA), is a computer that can conveniently be stored in a pocket and used while the user is holding it. PDAs are essentially small portable computers and are slightly bigger than the common calculators. Some examples of PDAs are Apple Newton, Casio Cassiopeia and Franklin ebook man Mini computers The mini computer is a small digital computer whose process and storage capacity is lesser than that of a mainframe, but more than that of micro computer. Its speed of processing data is in between that of a mainframe and a micro computes, generally, it is used as desktop device that is often connected to a mainframe in order to perform the auxiliary operations. Mini computers are usually multi-user systems, so these are used in interactive applications in industries, research organisations colleges and universities. High – performance workstations with graphics I/o capability use mini computers Some of the widely used mini computers are PDP II, IBM (8000 series) and VAX 7500. Mainframe computer A mainframe is an ultra – high performance computer made for high – volume, processor – intensive computing. It consists of a high end computer processor, with related peripheral devices, capable of supporting large volumes of data processing systems and extensive data storage and retrieval. 6|Page Mainframes are the second largest of the computer family, the largest being super computers. Mainframe allows its user to maintain large information storage at a centralised location and be able to access and process this data from different computers located at different locations It is typically used by large businesses and for scientific purpose. Examples of mainframe computers are IBM’s E5000, VAX8000 and CDC6600. Super computers Super computers are the special purpose machine, which are specially designed to maximise the numbers of FLOPS (floating point operation per second). Any computer below one gigaflop/sec is not considered a super computer. A super computer has the highest processing speed at a given time for solving scientific and engineering problems. Essentially, it contains a number of CPU, that operate in parallel to make it faster. Its processing speed lies in the range of 400 – 10,000 MFLOP’s (millions of floating point operation per second). Super computers are used to solve multivariant mathematical problems of existent physical processes, such as aerodynamics, metrologies, and plasms physics. The largest commercial use of super computers is in the entertainment advertising industry, CRAY – 3, Cyber 205 and PARAM are some well known super computers.  Computer Components Any kind of computers consists of HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE. Hardware: Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitutes a computer system. Computer hardware refers to the physical parts or components of a computer such as the monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data storage, hard drive disk (HDD), system unit (graphic cards, sound cards, memory, motherboard and chips), etc. all of which are physical objects that can be touched. Input Devices Input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment to provide data and control signals to an information processing system such as a computer or other information appliance. Input device Translate data from form that humans understand to one that the computer can work with. Most common are keyboard and mouse 7|Page Central Processing Unit (CPU) A CPU is brain of a computer. It is responsible for all functions and processes. Regarding computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer system. The CPU is comprised of three main parts : * Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Executes all arithmetic and logical operations. Arithmetic calculations like as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical operation like compare numbers, letters, or special characters * Control Unit (CU): controls and co-ordinates computer components. 1. Read the code for the next instruction to be executed. 2. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction. 3. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory. 4. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register. 5. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation. * Registers :Stores the data that is to be executed next, "very fast storage area". Primary Memory:- 1. RAM: Random Access Memory (RAM) is a memory scheme within the computer system responsible for storing data on a temporary basis, so that it can be promptly accessed by the 8|Page processor as and when needed. It is volatile in nature, which means that data will be erased once supply to the storage device is turned off. RAM stores data randomly and the processor accesses these data randomly from the RAM storage. RAM is considered "random access" because you can access any memory cell directly if you know the row and column that intersect at that cell. 2. ROM (Read Only Memory): ROM is a permanent form of storage. ROM stays active regardless of whether power supply to it is turned on or off. ROM devices do not allow data stored on them to be modified. Secondary Memory:- Stores data and programs permanently: its retained after the power is turned off 1. Hard drive (HD): A hard disk is part of a unit, often called a "disk drive," "hard drive," or "hard disk drive," that store and provides relatively quick access to large amounts of data on an electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces. 2. Optical Disk: an optical disc drive (ODD) is a disk drive that uses laser light as part of the process of reading or writing data to or from optical discs. Some drives can only read from discs, but recent drives are commonly both readers and recorders, also called burners or writers. Compact discs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs are common types of optical media which can be read and recorded by such drives. Optical drive is the generic name; drives are usually described as "CD" "DVD", or "Bluray", followed by "drive", "writer", etc. There are three main types of optical media: CD, DVD, and Blu-ray disc. CDs can store up to 700 megabytes (MB) of data and DVDs can store up to 8.4 GB of data. Blu-ray discs, which are the newest type of optical media, can store up to 50 GB of data. This storage capacity is a clear advantage over the floppy disk storage media (a magnetic media), which only has a capacity of 1.44 MB. 9|Page  BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION The block diagram of the computer system has the following three units, each functional unit corresponds to their basic operations performed as described in details. (a) Input unit (b) Central processing unit (c) Output unit (a) Input Unit Accept data and instructions from the outside world. Convert it to a form that the computer can understand Supply the converted data to the computer system for further processing The input unit is used to send information or instructions or commands to the computer. The data received from the input unit is immediately stored in main memory and then processed. Following are the some of the input devise. (i) Keyboard (ii) Mouse (iii) Light pen (iv) Joystick (v) Ocr (optical character recognizer) (vi) MICR (magnetic ink character recognizer) (vii) OMR ( optical mark recognizer) (b) Central Processing Unit (CPU) It performs all calculations and all decisions. It controls and co-ordinates all units of the computer It interprets instructions of a program It stores data temporarily and monitors external requests. 10 | P a g e The CPU is sub-divided into the following sub-system. (i) Control unit (ii) Arithmetic logic unit (iii) Memory unit (a) Primary storage (b) Secondary storage. (i) Control unit The control unit instructs the computer how to carry out program instructions. It directs the flow of data between memory and arithmetic logic unit. The input unit does not know when to receive data and where to put the data in the storage unit after receiving it similarly, the control unit instructs the input unit where to store the data after receiving it from the user. In the same way, it controls the flow of data and instructions from the storage unit to ALU during program execution the control unit fetches instructions from the primary memory, decodes them to determine the operations required, and then sets up instructions execution. Eg. To add two numbers or to read a character from a keyboard. A number registers are associated with the control unit. (ii) Arithmetic Logic Unit Arithmetic and logical unit performs all the arithmetic and logical operations. Arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and logical operations, such as comparisons are performed in ALU. All calculations are performed in the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) of the computer. ALU also does comparisons and take decision. Example: It can check if the number A is less than equal to or greater than the number B. once the calculations or the logical operation is performed by ALU, then the result is transferred to the storage unit. (iii) Memory unit Memory is the part of computer which holds data for processing and other information it is also called as main memory or primary memory. A device that stores program instructions or data used by the CPU when performing a given function. Memory is a device, which is used to store information temporarily/permanently, it is the place where the information is safekeeper. Secondary memory, such as disk storage, is functionality considered I/O because it is accessed through the I/O system. 11 | P a g e (a) Primary storage The primary storage is also called as “main memory” stores and access information very fastly. This is generally used to hold the program being currently executed in the computer, the data being received from the input unit, the intermediate and final results of the program. Primary storage is also known as system memory, internal, temporary and “RAM” ▪▪Installed on the main computer board (motherboard) ▪▪Typically comprised of ICs (integrated circuits) ▪▪Fast access – usually in the order of nano seconds (b) Secondary storage The secondary storage is also known as Auxiliary Storage it may store several programs, documents, databases etc. The program that we want to run on the computer is first transferred to the primary memory before it can run. Similarly, after running the program if need to save the result, it will transfer them to the secondary storage. The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than the primary memory. Some of the commonly used secondary memory devices are Floppy disk, Zip disk, Hard disk and Magnetic disks and Tapes etc. (c) Output unit Devices used to get the response or result of a process from the computer is called output unit is the communication between the user and the computer. The output unit of a computer provider the information and results of a computation to the outside world. Computers do not work in the decimal system; they work in the binary system. Therefore, if required, the output unit also converts the binary data into a form that users can understand. Commonly used output devices are. ▪▪Visual display unit (VDU) or monitor ▪▪Printer ▪▪Computer output microfilm ▪▪Plotter.  COMPUTER SOFTWARE Definition Software is a genetic term for organised collection of computer data and instructions. It is responsible for controlling intergrading and managing the hardware components of a computer and to accomplish specific tasks. For example: 12 | P a g e Software instructs the hardware what to display on the user’s screen, what kinds of input to take from the user and what kinds of output to generate. Types of software Software can be categorised as system software and application software.  SYSTEM SOFTWARE System software as an interface system software consists of several program which one directly responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the individual hardware components of a computer system. This software provider a programming environment in which programmers can create applications to accommodate their needs system software acts as an interface between the hardware of the computer and the software applications System software makes the computer functional they provide basic functionality like file management visual display and keyboard input and are used by application software to accomplish these functions. 13 | P a g e Some examples of system software are operating systems, device drivers’ language translators and system utilities. Operating system Operating system is the first layer of software loaded into computer memory when it starts up. As the first software layer, all other software that gets loaded after it depends on it for various common care services. These common core services include disk access, memory management task scheduling and user interfacing The operating system organises and controls the hardware. Examples of operating systems are Microsoft Windows, MacOS, Android, Ubuntu, UNIX and LINUX. Device Drivers Device drivers are system programs, which are responsible for proper functioning of devices every device, whether it is a printer, monitor, mouse or keyboard, has a driver associated with it per its proper functioning In modern operating systems, most hardware drivers, such as the keyboard drivers, come with the operating system. Language Translators Computer only understand a language consisting of 0 and l called machine language. Depending on the programming language used language translators are divided into three major categories. Compiler interpreter and assembler 14 | P a g e  Language Translators Description Compiler The programs written in any high-level programming language (C or Pascal) are converted into machine language using a compiler. Interpreter An interpreter analyses and executes the source code in line-by-line Manner, without looking at the entire program. Assembler Compared to all the types of programming languages, assembly Language is closest to the machine code. An assembler converts the assembly codes into machine codes, making the assembly program ready for execution. System Utility System utility programs perform day to day tasks related to the maintenance of the computer system they are used to support enhance, and secure existing programs and data in the computer system.  APPLICATION SOFTWARE Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft notepad it may also consist of a collection of programs often called a software package which work together to accomplish a task, such as database management software. Application software ranges from games, calculators and word processors document creating programs to programs that “paint” images on screen (image editors) some of the most used application software are discussed below. Word processors A word processor is a software used to compose, format, edit and print electronic documents. It involves not only typing, but also checking the spelling and grammar of the text and arranging it correctly on a page. 15 | P a g e It is possible to include pictures, graphs, charts and fonts and colour. Nowadays, virtually all personal computer is equipped with a word or other document and printing Example of some well-known word processors are Microsoft word and word perfect. Spread sheets One of the first commercial uses of computers was in processing payroll and other financial records. A spreadsheet application is a rectangular grid, which allows text, number and complex functions to be entered into a matrix of thousands of individual cells. The spreadsheet provides sheets containing cells each of which may contain text and/ or number Cells may also contain equations that calculate results from data placed in other cells or series of cells. 16 | P a g e Microsoft excel and lotus 1-2-3 are examples of spreadsheet applications Image Editors Image editor programs are designed specifically for capturing, creating, editing, and manipulating images These graphics programs provide a variety of special features per creating and altering images. In addition to offering a host of filters and image transformation algorithms, some editors also enable the user to credit and superimpose layers. With image editing software, one can darken or lighten an image, rotate it, adjust its contrast, crop out extraneous detail and much more. Examples of these programs are adobe photoshop, adobe illustrator and corel draw. 17 | P a g e Database management systems Database management software is a collection of computer programs that allow storage modification and extraction of information form a database in an efficient manner. It provides tools for data input, verification storage, retrieval, query and manipulation. New categories of data can be added to the database without disrupting the existing system. Forpro and oracle are database management systems. Presentation applications A presentation is a means of assessment which requires presentation providers to present their work orally in the presence of an audience. 18 | P a g e It combines both visual and verbal elements presentation software allow the user to create presentations by producing slides or hands-on per presentation of projects. Microsoft PowerPoint is one of the most famous presentation applications. Desktop publishing software: The term desktop publishing is usually used to describe the creation of printed documents using a desktop computer. It is a technique of using a personal computer to design images and pages, and assemble type and graphics, then using a laser printer or image setter to output the assembled pages onto paper, film or printing plate. Quark Express and adobe page maker are desktop publishing software. 19 | P a g e  System Software Application Software Meaning Computer software, or just software is a general term primarily used for Application software, also known as digitally stored data such as computer an application or an "app", is programs and other kinds of computer software designed to help information read and written by the user to perform specific tasks. computers. App comes under computer software though it has a wide scope now. Example: 1) Opera (Web Browser) 1) Microsoft Windows 2) Microsoft Word (Word Processing) 2) Linux 3) Microsoft Excel (Spreadsheet software) 3) Unix 4) MySQL (Database Software) 4) Mac OSX 5) Microsoft PowerPoint (Presentation 5) DOS Software) 6) Adobe Photoshop (Graphics Software) Interaction: Users always interact with application Generally, users do not interact with system software as it works in the software while doing different activities. background. Dependency: System software can run independently Application software cannot run without of the application software. the presence of the system software. Unit of Measurements Storage measurements: The basic unit used in computer data storage is called a bit (binary digit). Computers use these little bits, which are composed of ones and zeros, to do things and talk to other computers. All your files, for instance, are kept in the computer as binary files and translated into words and pictures by the software (which is also ones and zeros). This two number system, is called a “binary number system” since it has only two numbers in it. The decimal number system in contrast has ten unique digits, zero through nine. Computer BIT 0 or 1 Storage units Bit Kilobyte KB 1024 bytes Megabyte MB 1024 kilobytes Gigabyte GB 1024 megabytes Terabyte TB 1024 gigabytes Size example 1 bit - answer to an yes/no question 1 byte - a number from 0 to 255. 90 bytes: enough to store a typical line of text from a book. 4 KB: about one page of text. 120 KB: the text of a typical pocket book. 3 MB - a three minute song (128k bitrate) 650-900 MB - an CD-ROM 20 | P a g e  1 GB -114 minutes of uncompressed CD-quality audio at 1.4 Mbit/s 8-16 GB - size of a normal flash drive Speed measurement: The speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is measured by Hertz (Hz), Which represent a CPU cycle. The speed of CPU is known as Computer Speed. CPU SPEED MEASURES 1 hertz or Hz 1 cycle per second 1 MHz 1 million cycles per second or 1000 Hz 1 GHz 1 billion cycles per second or 1000 MHz  USER INTERFACE A user interface or UI is a process of interaction of the user with the computer, website, app or any other screen. For example, the remote control is a hard device by which users can interact with the TV screen. You can have any design on the screen and you interact with it. The design that is displayed on the screen is the interface and you as a user interact with it. You can interact with the screen by mouse, keyboard, finger touch, by voice command. Take an example of a shopping app. You as a user place order on the app by interacting with the app. You can select different options on the app, i.e. selecting a size, quantity, price, delivery option. Finally, you complete your order on the app. 21 | P a g e Types of user interface Graphical user interface (GUI) A graphical user interface (GUI) is a type of interface in which graphical elements are displayed on the screen. The graphical elements are buttons, charts, tables, pictures, toolbars etc. You open a website or desktop software and then interact with it by using a mouse and keyboard. An example of GUI is Windows operating system, Mac OS, Linux. In this operating system, the interface is graphical i.e. the windows we open have menus, toolbars, buttons, pictures, icons etc. Command-line interface (CLI) Command-line interface (CLI) is that interface in which we interact with the computer by entering commands. An example of CLI is MS-DOS in Windows and terminal in MAC and Linux. You can type commands to download files, copy files, move files, delete files etc. Menu-driven interface A menu-driven interface is a type of interface in which menus are displayed on the screen and the user click on those menus to perform different tasks. In Windows, you can click on the start menu and it displays other menus. Similarly, websites or apps also have a menu on top or left of the screen. You can open other web pages of the website by clicking on menus. In your car, the LED screen has also a menu’s by which you play a video or audio. Form-based interface A form-based interface is an interface by which the user fills a form and submit it to the website. As you can see that any website has a contact us page. You fill a form on the contact us page and that form is submitted to the admin of the website. Similarly, you have heard about Google forms that are used to get data of users who fill the form. The HTML forms have different fields like text field, text area, upload button, drop-down menus, radio buttons. These all are components of the form. Examples of user interface Some examples of the user interface are:-  MS-DOS  Windows OS, Mac OS, Linux OS  Remote control  ATM  Virtual reality  Speedometer  Mobile app  Website 22 | P a g e INTRODUCTION TO WINDOWS Microsoft Windows is a multitasking operating system developed by Microsoft Corporation, which uses Graphical User Interface to interact with users. Microsoft was initially named “Traf- O-Data” in 1972, was renamed “Micro-soft” in November 1975, and then “Microsoft” on November 26, 1976. Microsoft entered the marketplace in August 1981 by releasing version 1.0 of the operating system Microsoft DOS (MS-DOS), a 16-bit command-line operating system. Bill Gates and Paul Allen founded Microsoft, and the Windows operating system has been its primary product. In a nutshell, below is how Microsoft Windows evolved:  Windows 1.0 – Nov 1985  Windows 2.0 – Dec 1987  Windows 3.0 – May 1990  Windows 95 – Aug 1995  Windows 98 – June 1998  Windows ME – Sep 2000  Windows XP – Oct 2001  Windows Vista – Nov 2006  Windows 7 – July 2009  Windows 8.0 – Oct 2012  Windows 8.1 – Oct 2013  Windows 10 – July 2015  Windows 11 – October 2021 23 | P a g e Components of Windows When coming to GUI components, we have the following as the main components: 1. Desktop It is the first screen you will see once the windows start. Here you will see “My Computer”, “My Documents”, “Start Menu”, “Recycle Bin”, and the shortcuts of any applications that you might have created. 2. Taskbar At the bottom, you will see a row known as the taskbar. It has the currently running applications; you can pin applications you frequently use using the option Pin to Taskbar”. 3. Start Menu This is located in the bottom left corner of Windows OS GUI. This is where the user can search for any setting and any application for their use. Users can uninstall or repair applications from the control panel. The user can do a lot of activities just by searching through the start menu. 4. My Computer Double-clicking the “My Computer” menu will let you navigate between your different computer drives and the control panel tools. You can see and manage the contents that are inside your drive. 24 | P a g e 5. Recycle Bin Deleting an item from any of your drives using the “delete” button or simply clicking right- clicking and selecting the “delete” option is not deleted completely. Instead, it is moved to the “Recycle Bin” folder of Windows. You can recover your content if you have deleted it by mistake, or if you choose to delete the items from here, it will get deleted permanently. Should you wish to delete the item in the first go itself without moving it to recycle bin, you can use the key “Shift+Del” Features of Windows Windows Search: We can have multiple files and contents located on our system, and sometimes we may run out of memory about the exact location of our file. Windows Search is a function included with Windows that allows users to search their entire computer. Windows File Transfer: We may need to transfer in or transfer out the files and contents from our machine to other devices such as other computers or mobiles, and tablets. We can do this using an Easy Transfer Cable, CDs or DVDs, a USB flash drive, wireless Bluetooth, a network folder, or an external hard disk. Windows Updates: Windows includes an automatic update feature to keep its operating system safe and up-to-date. Windows taskbar: At the bottom-most part of your windows, you will see a row known as the taskbar. It has the currently running applications; you can pin applications you frequently use using the option Pin to Taskbar”. The taskbar is the main navigation tool for Windows. Remote Desktop Connection: This Windows feature allows you to connect to another system and work remotely on another system. Control Panel The Control Panel in Microsoft Windows enables a user to change various computer hardware and software features. Settings for the mouse, display, sound, network, and keyboard represent a few examples of what may be modified in the Control Panel. Below are examples of how the Control Panel appeared in Windows. Sections of the Windows Control Panel There are eight main areas on the Control Panel, containing different tools designed to optimize your computer. 25 | P a g e  I. System and Security - A section to check your computer's status, backup and restore, and others. II. Network and Internet - View network status. III. Hardware and Sound - View which devices are on your computer and add devices. IV. Programs - Uninstall programs. V. User Accounts - Change user accessibility. VI. Appearance and Personalization - Change desktop options, like fonts and screen readers. VII. Clock and Region - Change date and time. VIII. Ease of access - Optimize your display settings. Creating Files and Folders File Explorer In Windows, the primary way of interacting with files and folders is through the File Explorer application. (In older versions of Windows, this may be called Windows Explorer. In Macs, the equivalent would be Finder.) There are a couple of ways to open File Explorer. The shortcut Win+E will open File Explorer. It can also be opened by clicking the Start button and typing “File Explorer” or by right-clicking any folder and selecting Open. By default, File Explorer is pinned to the task bar (see below), and it can be opened from there. 26 | P a g e Some folders already exist in File Explorer, such as Documents, Desktop, and Downloads. (Documents may be called “My Documents” in older versions of Windows). You can create more folders or folders within folders to allow for better organization. To create a folder, right-click, then select New>Folder. 27 | P a g e In Windows 10, you can also click the Home tab, then the New Folder button. Renaming Files To rename a file or folder, right-click the file or folder, then select Rename. You can also click the name of the file or folder once, wait one second, then click the name of the file or folder again. Note that in Windows, a file cannot contain any of the following characters: \ / : * ? " < > |. This is because those characters have special meaning in Windows. (For example \ is included in file paths.) If Windows encounters a file or folder with those symbols, it could potentially misread the file or folder name and cause problems. As a precaution, Windows will not let you save files or folders with those characters, so don’t worry about saving a file with those characters in the name by mistake. 28 | P a g e INTERNET The internet offers a range of services to its consumers. We can upload and download the files/ data via the internet as it is a pool of knowledge. We can access or obtain information as needed. It is quite popular because of the variety of senders available on the Internet. Web services have grown in popularity as a result of these offerings. To access/exchange a large amount of data such as software, audio clips, video clips, text files, other documents, etc., we require internet services. We must use an Internet service to connect to the Internet. Data can be sent from Internet servers to your machine via Internet service. Some of the internet services are FTP, Telnet, VoIP, etc. How to connect your computer to the Internet? Before moving further first of all we will understand how to connect our computer to the internet. So to establish the connection follow the following steps: Step 1: Install the hardware, such as a modem and an Ethernet cable, as well as the important software like LAN driver, etc. Step 2: Use an ethernet cable or a wireless link to establish a preliminary connection. Step 3: Navigate to the router’s default IP address. Step 4: Use the login name and password provided by the ISP to connect to the internet. Step 5: Save your preferences. Internet services To access/exchange a large amount of data such as software, audio clips, video clips, text files, other documents, etc., we need internet services. You must use an Internet service to connect to the Internet. Data can be sent from Internet servers to your machine via Internet service. Some of the commonly used internet services are:  Communication Services  Information Retrieval Services  File Transfer  World Wide Web Services  Web Services  Directory Services  Automatic Network Address Configuration  Network Management Services  Time Services  Usenet  NewsGroup  Ecommerce 29 | P a g e Now let us discuss them one by one- 1. Communication Services: To exchange data/information among individuals or organizations, we need communication services. Following are some of the common communication services: IRC (Internet Relay Chat): Subscribers can communicate in real-time by connecting numerous computers in public spaces called channels. VoIP: It stands for Voice over Internet Protocol, which describes how to make and receive phone calls over the internet. A larger number of people believe VoIP is a viable alternative to traditional landlines. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) is a technique that helps us make voice calls via the Internet rather than over a traditional (or analog) phone line. Some VoIP services may let you call only other VoIP users, while others may let you call anyone with a phone number, including long-distance, mobile, and local/international lines. If you have an internet connection you can easily call anyone without using a local phone service because VoIP solutions are based on open standards, they can be used on any computer. More than just setting up calls is what VoIP service providers do. Outgoing and incoming calls are routed through existing telephone networks by them. E-Mail: Used to send electronic mail via the internet. It is a paperless method for sending text, images, documents, videos, etc from one person to another via the internet. User Network (USENET): It hosts newsgroups and message boards on certain topics, and it is mostly run by volunteers. Telnet: It’s used to connect to a remote computer that’s connected to the internet. Video Conferencing: Video conferencing systems allow two or more people who are generally in different locations to connect live and visually. Live video conferencing services are necessary for simulating face-to-face talks over the internet. The system can vary from very simple to complex, depending on the live video conferencing vendors. A live video-based conference involves two or more individuals in separate locations utilizing video-enabled devices and streaming voice, video, text, and presentations in real-time via the internet. It allows numerous people to connect and collaborate face to face over large distances. Tools available for this purpose are Zoom, FreeConference, Google Hangouts, Skype, etc. 2. Information Retrieval Services: It is the procedure for gaining access to information/data stored on the Internet. Net surfing or browsing is the process of discovering and obtaining information from the Internet. When your computer is linked to the Internet, you may begin retrieving data. To get data, we need a piece of software called a Web browser. A print or computer-based information retrieval system searches for and locates data in a file, database, or other collection of data. 3. File Transfer: The exchange of data files across computer systems is referred to as file transfer. Using the network or internet connection to transfer or shift a file from one computer to another is known as file transfer. To share, transfer, or send a file or logical data item across 30 | P a g e several users and/or machines, both locally and remotely, we use file transfer. Data files include – documents, multimedia, pictures, text, and PDFs and they can be shared by uploading or downloading them. To retrieve information from the internet, there are various services available such as: Gopher: A file retrieval application based on hierarchical, distributed menus that is simple to use. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): To share, transfer, or send a file or logical data item across several users and/or machines, both locally and remotely. Archie: A file and directory information retrieval system that may be linked to FTP 4. Web services: Web services are software that uses defined messaging protocols and are made accessible for usage by a client or other web-based programs through an application service provider’s web server. Web services allow information to be exchanged across web- based applications. Using Utility Computing, web services can be provided. 5. World Wide Web: The internet is a vast network of interconnected computers. Using this network, you can connect to the world wide web (abbreviated as ‘www’ or ‘web’) is a collection of web pages. The web browser lets you access the web via the internet. 6. Directory Services: A directory service is a set of software that keeps track of information about your company, customers, or both. Network resource names are mapped to network addresses by directory services. A directory service provides users and administrators with full transparent access to printers, servers, and other network devices. The directory services are: DNS (Domain Number System): This server provides DNS. The mappings of computer hostnames and other types of domain names to IP addresses are stored on a DNS server. 31 | P a g e  (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol): It is a set of open protocols that are used for obtaining network access to stored data centrally. It is a cross-platform authentication protocol for directory services and also allows users to interact with other directory services servers. 7. Automatic Network Address Configuration: Automatic Network Addressing assigns a unique IP address to every system in a network. A server is a network server that is used to assign IP addresses, gateways, and other network information to client devices. It uses Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol as a common protocol to reply to broadcast inquiries from clients. 32 | P a g e 8. Network Management Services: Network management services are another essential internet service that is beneficial to network administrators. Network management services aid in the prevention, analysis, diagnosis, and resolution of connection problems. One command related to this is: ping: The ping command is a Command Prompt command that is used to see if a source can communicate with a specific destination & get all the possible paths between them. 9. Time Services: Using facilities included in the operating system, you may set your computer clock via the Internet. Some services are : Network Time Protocol (NTP): It is a widely used internet time service that allows you to accurately synchronize and adjust your computer clock. The Simple Network Time Protocol (SNTP): It is a time-keeping protocol that is used to synchronize network hardware. When a full implementation of NTP is not required, then this simplified form of NTP is typically utilized. 10. Usenet: The ‘User’s Network’ is also known as Usenet. It is a network of online discussion groups. It’s one of the first networks where users may upload files to news servers and others can view them. 11. News Group: It is a lively Online Discussion Forum that is easily accessible via Usenet. Each newsgroup contains conversations on a certain topic, as indicated by the newsgroup name. Users can use newsreader software to browse and follow the newsgroup as well as comment on the posts. A newsgroup is a debate about a certain topic made up of notes posted to a central Internet site and distributed over Usenet, a global network of news discussion groups. It uses Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP). 12. E-commerce: Electronic commerce, also known as electronic-commerce or e-Commerce, is a business concept that allows businesses and individuals to buy and sell goods through the internet. Example: Amazon, Flipkart, etc. websites/apps. 33 | P a g e MS WORD An Introduction to MS Word One of the most widely used programs of Microsoft Office suite, MS Word is a word processor developed by Microsoft. Since MS Word is one of the most used programs of the Office Suite, some basic information regarding its creation and development has been given below: o Charles Simonyi, a developer and Richard Brodie, a software engineer, were the two creators of MS Word o This program was initially named “Multi-Tool Word” but later, was renamed as MS Word o It was introduced in 1983 o Word for Windows is available standalone or as a part of MS Office suite o MS Word for Mac was introduced by Microsoft as Word 1.0 in 1985 o The extension for any word file is “.doc or.docx.” What is MS Word? Used to make professional-quality documents, letters, reports, etc., MS Word is a word processor developed by Microsoft. It has advanced features which allow you to format and edit your files and documents in the best possible way. Where to find MS Word on your personal computer? Follow these simple steps to open MS Word on your personal computer: Start → All Programs → MS Office → MS Word. 34 | P a g e What are the uses of MS Word? MS Word enables users to do write-ups, create documents, resumes, contracts, etc. This is one of the most commonly used programs under the Office suite. How to create an MS Word document? To create an MS Word doc, follow the steps mentioned above to open Microsoft Word. Then once the program is open, click on “File” followed by “New”. This opens a new doc where something new can be created. Since it is used by people of all age groups, in schools, in colleges and for official purposes, having proper knowledge of Microsoft Word is a must. The preview of the MS Doc file once it is opened is given below: Features of MS Word Now let us read more about the features and components of an MS Word doc file in detail. The image given below shows the different elements and categories which are available in MS Word doc: 35 | P a g e Home This has options like font colour, font size, font style, alignment, bullets, line spacing, format painter (copy format),find / replace etc. All the basic elements which one may need to edit their document is available under the Home option. Insert Tables, shapes, images, charts, graphs, header, footer, page number, etc. can all be entered in the document. They are included in the “Insert” category. Draw This tab present in the menu bar or ribbon. It is used for freehand drawing in Ms Word. It provides different types of pens for drawing as shown below: Design The template or the design in which you want your document to be created can be selected under the Design tab. Choosing an appropriate tab will enhance the appearance of your document. 36 | P a g e Page Layout Under the Page Layout tab comes options like margins, orientation, columns, lines, indentation, spacing, etc. References This tab is the most useful for those who are creating a thesis or writing books or lengthy documents. Options like citation, footnote, table of contents, caption, bibliography, etc. can be found under this tab. Mailings This tab present in the menu bar or ribbon. It is a least used tab in the menu bar. This tab is where you would create labels, print them on envelopes, do mail merge, etc. After selecting mailing, you will get the below options: Review Spell check, grammar, Thesaurus, word count, language, translation, comments, etc. can all be tracked under the review tab. This acts as an advantage for those who get their documents reviewed on MS Word. View This tab present in the menu bar or ribbon. View tab allows you to switch between single page or double page and also allows you to control the layout tools It includes print layout, outline, web layout, task pane, toolbars, ruler, header and footer, footnotes, full-screen view, zoom, etc. as shown in the below image: 37 | P a g e When compared with MS PowerPoint, MS Word is more of reading while PPT is more of visual and graphical representation of data. NOTE: We have practically learned all this key/important features and option available with us to use in MS Word. Uses of MS Word Given below are the different fields in which MS Word is used and simplifies the work of an individual: In Education: It is considered as one of the simplest tools which can be used by both teachers and students. Creating notes is easier using MS Word as they can be made more interactive by adding shapes and images. It is also convenient to make assignments on MS Word and submitting them online In Workplace: Submitting letters, bills, creating reports, letterheads, sample documents, can all easily be done using MS Word Creating & Updating Resume: One of the best tools to create your resumes and is easy to edit and make changes in it as per your experience For Authors: Since separate options are available for bibliography, table of contents, etc., it is the best tool which can be used by authors for writing books and adjusting it as per the layout and alignment of your choice Also, creating a Doc file and converting it into PDF is a more suitable option, so it is highly recommended. Versions 38 | P a g e Frequently use keyboard shortcuts in Word 39 | P a g e MS PowerPoint Introduction To MS PowerPoint MS PowerPoint is a program that is included in the Microsoft Office suite. It is used to make presentations for personal and professional purposes. PowerPoint (PPT) is a powerful, easy-to-use presentation graphics software program that allows you to create professional-looking electronic slide shows. Given below are a few important things that one must know about the development and introduction of Microsoft PowerPoint: The program was created in a software company named Forethought, Inc. by Robert Gaskins and Dennis Austin. o It was released on April 20, 1987, and after 3 months of its creation, it was acquired by Microsoft. o The first version of this program, when introduced by Microsoft was MS PowerPoint 2.0 (1990). o It is a presentation-based program that uses graphics, videos, etc. to make a presentation more interactive and interesting. o The file extension of a saved Powerpoint presentation is “.ppt or pptx”. o A PowerPoint presentation comprising slides and other features is also known as PPT. Gradually, with each version, the program was more creative and more interactive. Various other features were added in PowerPoint which massively increased the requirement and use of this MS Office program. 40 | P a g e How to open MS PowerPoint on a personal computer? Follow the steps below to open MS PowerPoint on a personal computer: Start → All Programs → MS Office → MS PowerPoint A blank presentation is open on the screen. According to the requirement, a person can modify the template for a presentation and start using the program. What all elements can be added to a slide? The following elements can be added to a Powerpoint slide:  Clip Art  Graphs  Tables  Photographs  Charts  Media Clips  Videos All these elements are mainly used to enhance presentation skills and make the slide more interactive. Features of MS PowerPoint There are multiple features that are available in MS PowerPoint which can customise and optimise a presentation. The same have been discussed below. 41 | P a g e Slide Layout Multiple options and layouts are available based on which a presentation can be created. This option is available under the “Home” section and one can select from the multiple layout options provided. The image below shows the different slide layout options which are available for use: Insert – Clipart, Video, Audio, etc. Under the “Insert” category, multiple options are available where one can choose what feature they want to insert in their presentation. This may include images, audio, video, header, footer, symbols, shapes, etc. The image below shows the features which can be inserted: Slide Design MS PowerPoint has various themes using which background colour and designs or textures can be added to a slide. This makes the presentation more colourful and attracts the attention of the people looking at it. This feature can be added using the “Design” category mentioned on the homepage of MS PowerPoint. Although there are existing design templates available, in case someone wants to add some new texture or colour, the option to customise the design is also available. Apart from this, slide designs can also be downloaded online. 42 | P a g e Refer to the below for slide design: Animations/Transitions During the slide show, the slides appear on the screen one after the other. In case, one wants to add some animations to the way in which a slide presents itself, they can refer to the “Animations” category. And for special effects between each slide, you've seen slide transitions option available. The different animation styles available on PowerPoint are: The different transitions styles available on PowerPoint are: Slide Show To start the presentation at the first slide, in the Start Slide Show group, click From Beginning- Shortcut key is F5 43 | P a g e Apart from all these options; font size, font style, font colour, word art, date and time, etc. can also be added to a PPT. NOTE: We have practically learned all this key/important features and option available with us to use in MS Powerpoint. Uses of PowerPoint Presentation PowerPoint presentations are useful for both personal and professional usage. Given below are a few of the major fields where PPT is extremely useful: Education – With e-learning and smart classes being chosen as a common mode of education today, PowerPoint presentations can help in making education more interactive and attract students towards the modified version of studying Marketing – In the field of marketing, PowerPoint presentations can be extremely important. Using graphs and charts, numbers can be shown more evidently and clearly which may be ignored by the viewer if being read Business – To invite investors or to show the increase or decrease in profits, MS PowerPoint can be used Creating Resumes – Digital resumes can be formed using MS PowerPoint. Different patterns, photograph, etc. can be added to the resume Depicting Growth – Since both graphics and text can be added in a presentation, depicting the growth of a company, business, student’s marks, etc. is easier using PPT 44 | P a g e Frequently use keyboard shortcuts in PowerPoint MS PowerPoint Key List Shorcuts Uses of Shortcut Key Ctrl+Tab Switch between different open presentations Ctrl+N Create a new presentation Ctrl+O Open an existing presentation Ctrl+Q Save and close a presentation Ctrl+S Save a presentation Ctrl+Y Repeat last action Ctrl+W Close a presentation Ctrl+Z Undo an action Ctrl+H Replace option Ctrl+F Search in a presentation F5 To slideshow presentation F7 To Spell Check Alt+N Open the Insert tab Alt+R Go to the Review tab Alt+S Go to the Slide Show tab 45 | P a g e