Chapter 1: Basic Concepts and Computer Evolution PDF

+ Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Computer Evolution Computer Architecture Computer Organization Attributes of a system Instruction set, number of visible to the bits used to represent...

+ Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Computer Evolution Computer Architecture Computer Organization Attributes of a system Instruction set, number of visible to the bits used to represent programmer various data types, I/O Have a direct impact on mechanisms, techniques the logical execution of a for addressing memory program Architectural Computer attributes Architecture include: Organizational Computer attributes Organization include: Hardware details The operational units and transparent to the their interconnections programmer, control that realize the signals, interfaces architectural between the computer specifications and peripherals, memory technology used + IBM System 370 Architecture ◼ IBM System/370 architecture ◼ Was introduced in 1970 ◼ Included a number of models ◼ Could upgrade to a more expensive, faster model without having to abandon original software ◼ New models are introduced with improved technology, but retain the same architecture so that the customer’s software investment is protected ◼ Architecture has survived to this day as the architecture of IBM’s mainframe product line + Structure and Function ◼ Hierarchical system ◼ Structure ◼ Set of interrelated ◼ The way in which subsystems components relate to each ◼ Hierarchical nature of complex other systems is essential to both ◼ Function their design and their description ◼ The operation of individual components as part of the ◼ Designer need only deal with structure a particular level of the system at a time ◼ Concerned with structure and function at each level + Function ◼ There are four basic functions that a computer can perform: ◼ Data processing ◼ Data may take a wide variety of forms and the range of processing requirements is broad ◼ Data storage ◼ Short-term ◼ Long-term ◼ Data movement ◼ Input-output (I/O) - when data are received from or delivered to a device (peripheral) that is directly connected to the computer ◼ Data communications – when data are moved over longer distances, to or from a remote device ◼ Control ◼ A control unit manages the computer’s resources and orchestrates the performance of its functional parts in response to instructions  COMPUTER I/O Main memory System Bus CPU CPU Registers ALU Structure Internal Bus Control Unit CONTROL UNIT Sequencing Logic Control Unit Registers and Decoders Control Memory Figure 1.1 A Top-Down View of a Computer +  CPU – controls the operation of the computer and performs its There are four data processing functions main structural components  Main Memory – stores data of the computer:  I/O – moves data between the computer and its external environment  System Interconnection – some mechanism that provides for communication among CPU, main memory, and I/O + ◼ Control Unit CPU ◼ Controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer Major structural ◼ Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) components: ◼ Performs the computer’s data processing function ◼ Registers ◼ Provide storage internal to the CPU ◼ CPU Interconnection ◼ Some mechanism that provides for communication among the control unit, ALU, and registers + Multicore Computer Structure ◼ Central processing unit (CPU) ◼ Portion of the computer that fetches and executes instructions ◼ Consists of an ALU, a control unit, and registers ◼ Referred to as a processor in a system with a single processing unit ◼ Core ◼ An individual processing unit on a processor chip ◼ May be equivalent in functionality to a CPU on a single-CPU system ◼ Specialized processing units are also referred to as cores ◼ Processor ◼ A physical piece of silicon containing one or more cores ◼ Is the computer component that interprets and executes instructions ◼ Referred to as a multicore processor if it contains multiple cores + Cache Memory ◼ Multiple layers of memory between the processor and main memory ◼ Is smaller and faster than main memory ◼ Used to speed up memory access by placing in the cache data from main memory that is likely to be used in the near future ◼ A greater performance improvement may be obtained by using multiple levels of cache, with level 1 (L1) closest to the core and additional levels (L2, L3, etc.) progressively farther from the core  MOTHERBOARD Main memory chips Processor I/O chips chip PROCESSOR CHIP Core Core Core Core L3 cache L3 cache Core Core Core Core CORE Arithmetic Instruction and logic Load/ logic unit (ALU) store logic L1 I-cache L1 data cache L2 instruction L2 data cache cache Figure 1.2 Simplified View of Major Elements of a Multicore Computer + History of Computers First Generation: Vacuum Tubes ◼ Vacuum tubes were used for digital logic elements and memory ◼ IAS computer ◼ Fundamental design approach was the stored program concept ◼ Attributed to the mathematician John von Neumann ◼ First publication of the idea was in 1945 for the EDVAC ◼ Design began at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies ◼ Completed in 1952 ◼ Prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers + Registers Memory buffer register Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O unit (MBR) Or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit Memory address Specifies the address in memory of the word to be written from register (MAR) or read into the MBR Instruction register (IR) Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed Instruction buffer Employed to temporarily hold the right-hand instruction from a register (IBR) word in memory Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be fetched Program counter (PC) from memory Accumulator (AC) and Employed to temporarily hold operands and results of ALU multiplier quotient (MQ) operations + History of Computers Second Generation: Transistors ◼ Smaller ◼ Cheaper ◼ Dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube ◼ Is a solid state device made from silicon ◼ Was invented at Bell Labs in 1947 ◼ It was not until the late 1950’s that fully transistorized computers were commercially available + Table 1.2 Computer Generations Approximate Typical Speed Generation Dates Technology (operations per second) 1 1946–1957 Vacuum tube 40,000 2 1957–1964 Transistor 200,000 3 1965–1971 Small and medium scale 1,000,000 integration 4 1972–1977 Large scale integration 10,000,000 5 1978–1991 Very large scale integration 100,000,000 6 1991- Ultra large scale integration >1,000,000,000 + Second Generation Computers ◼ Introduced: ◼ More complex arithmetic and logic units and control units ◼ The use of high-level programming languages ◼ Provision of system software which provided the ability to: ◼ Load programs ◼ Move data to peripherals ◼ Libraries perform common computations History of Computers Third Generation: Integrated Circuits ◼ 1958 – the invention of the integrated circuit ◼ Discrete component ◼ Single, self-contained transistor ◼ Manufactured separately, packaged in their own containers, and soldered or wired together onto masonite-like circuit boards ◼ Manufacturing process was expensive and cumbersome ◼ The two most important members of the third generation were the IBM System/360 and the DEC PDP-8  Boolean Binary Input logic Output Input storage Output function cell Read Activate Write signal (a) Gate (b) Memory cell Figure 1.10 Fundamental Computer Elements + ◼ A computer consists of gates, Integrated memory cells, and interconnections among these Circuits elements ◼ The gates and memory cells ◼ Data storage – provided by are constructed of simple memory cells digital electronic components ◼ Data processing – provided by gates ◼ Exploits the fact that such components as transistors, resistors, and conductors can be ◼ Data movement – the paths fabricated from a among components are used semiconductor such as silicon to move data from memory to memory and from memory ◼ Many transistors can be through gates to memory produced at the same time on a single wafer of silicon ◼ Control – the paths among components can carry control ◼ Transistors can be connected signals with a processor metallization to form circuits Moore’s Law 1965; Gordon Moore – co-founder of Intel Observed number of transistors that could be put on a single chip was doubling every year Consequences of Moore’s law: The pace slowed to a doubling every 18 months in the 1970’s but has sustained The cost of The electrical Computer computer logic path length is becomes smaller Reduction in that rate ever since and memory shortened, power and Fewer and is more interchip circuitry has increasing convenient to cooling use in a variety connections fallen at a operating requirements dramatic rate speed of environments + IBM System/360 ◼ Announced in 1964 ◼ Product line was incompatible with older IBM machines ◼ Was the success of the decade and cemented IBM as the overwhelmingly dominant computer vendor ◼ The architecture remains to this day the architecture of IBM’s mainframe computers ◼ Was the industry’s first planned family of computers ◼ Models were compatible in the sense that a program written for one model should be capable of being executed by another model in the series + Family Characteristics Similar or Similar or identical identical operating instruction set system Increasing Increasing number of I/O speed ports Increasing Increasing cost memory size  Console Main I/O I/O CPU controller memory module module Omnibus Figure 1.13 PDP-8 Bus Structure + LSI Large Scale Later Integration Generations VLSI Very Large Scale Integration ULSI Semiconductor Memory Ultra Large Microprocessors Scale Integration  Semiconductor Memory In 1970 Fairchild produced the first relatively capacious semiconductor memory Chip was about the size Could hold 256 bits of Non-destructive Much faster than core of a single core memory In 1974 the price per bit of semiconductor memory dropped below the price per bit of core memory There has been a continuing and rapid decline in Developments in memory and processor memory cost accompanied by a corresponding technologies changed the nature of computers in increase in physical memory density less than a decade Since 1970 semiconductor memory has been through 13 generations Each generation has provided four times the storage density of the previous generation, accompanied by declining cost per bit and declining access time + Microprocessors ◼ The density of elements on processor chips continued to rise ◼ More and more elements were placed on each chip so that fewer and fewer chips were needed to construct a single computer processor ◼ 1971 Intel developed 4004 ◼ First chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a single chip ◼ Birth of microprocessor ◼ 1972 Intel developed 8008 ◼ First 8-bit microprocessor ◼ 1974 Intel developed 8080 ◼ First general purpose microprocessor ◼ Faster, has a richer instruction set, has a large addressing capability  Evolution of Intel Microprocessors 4004 8008 8080 8086 8088 Introduced 1971 1972 1974 1978 1979 5 MHz, 8 MHz, 10 Clock speeds 108 kHz 108 kHz 2 MHz 5 MHz, 8 MHz MHz Bus width 4 bits 8 bits 8 bits 16 bits 8 bits Number of 2,300 3,500 6,000 29,000 29,000 transistors Feature size 10 8 6 3 6 (µm) Addressable 640 Bytes 16 KB 64 KB 1 MB 1 MB memory (a) 1970s Processors  Evolution of Intel Microprocessors 80286 386TM DX 386TM SX 486TM DX CPU Introduced 1982 1985 1988 1989 Clock speeds 6 MHz - 12.5 16 MHz - 33 16 MHz - 33 25 MHz - 50 MHz MHz MHz MHz Bus width 16 bits 32 bits 16 bits 32 bits Number of transistors 134,000 275,000 275,000 1.2 million Feature size (µm) 1.5 1 1 0.8 - 1 Addressable 16 MB 4 GB 16 MB 4 GB memory Virtual 1 GB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB memory Cache — — — 8 kB (b) 1980s Processors  Evolution of Intel Microprocessors 486TM SX Pentium Pentium Pro Pentium II Introduced 1991 1993 1995 1997 Clock speeds 16 MHz - 33 60 MHz - 166 150 MHz - 200 200 MHz - 300 MHz MHz, MHz MHz Bus width 32 bits 32 bits 64 bits 64 bits Number of 1.185 million 3.1 million 5.5 million 7.5 million transistors Feature size (µm) 1 0.8 0.6 0.35 Addressable 4 GB 4 GB 64 GB 64 GB memory Virtual memory 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB 512 kB L1 and 1 Cache 8 kB 8 kB 512 kB L2 MB L2 (c) 1990s Processors  Evolution of Intel Microprocessors Core 2 Duo Core i7 EE Pentium III Pentium 4 4960X Introduced 1999 2000 2006 2013 Clock speeds 450 - 660 MHz 1.3 - 1.8 GHz 1.06 - 1.2 GHz 4 GHz Bus wid 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits th Number of 9.5 million 42 million 167 million 1.86 billion transistors Feature size (nm) 250 180 65 22 Addressable 64 GB 64 GB 64 GB 64 GB memory Virtual memory 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB Cache 512 kB L2 256 kB L2 2 MB L2 1.5 MB L2/15 MB L3 Number of cores 1 1 2 6 (d) Recent Processors + The Evolution of the Intel x86 Architecture ◼ Two processor families are the Intel x86 and the ARM architectures ◼ Current x86 offerings represent the results of decades of design effort on complex instruction set computers (CISCs) ◼ An alternative approach to processor design is the reduced instruction set computer (RISC) ◼ ARM architecture is used in a wide variety of embedded systems and is one of the most powerful and best-designed RISC-based systems on the market Highlights of the Evolution of the Intel Product Line: 8080 8086 80286 80386 80486 World’s first A more Extension of the Intel’s first 32- Introduced the general- powerful 16-bit 8086 enabling bit machine use of much purpose machine addressing a First Intel more microprocessor Has an 16-MB memory processor to sophisticated 8-bit machine, instruction instead of just support and powerful 8-bit data path cache, or 1MB multitasking cache to memory queue, that technology and Was used in the prefetches a sophisticated first personal few instructions instruction computer before they are pipelining (Altair) executed Also offered a The first built-in math appearance of coprocessor the x86 architecture The 8088 was a variant of this processor and used in IBM’s first personal computer (securing the success of Intel Highlights of the Evolution of the Intel Product Line: Pentium Intel introduced the use of superscalar techniques, which allow multiple instructions to execute in parallel Pentium Pro Continued the move into superscalar organization with aggressive use of register renaming, branch prediction, data flow analysis, and speculative execution Pentium II Incorporated Intel MMX technology, which is designed specifically to process video, audio, and graphics data efficiently Pentium III Incorporated additional floating-point instructions Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE) Pentium 4 Includes additional floating-point and other enhancements for multimedia Core First Intel x86 micro-core Core 2 Extends the Core architecture to 64 bits Core 2 Quad provides four cores on a single chip More recent Core offerings have up to 10 cores per chip An important addition to the architecture was the Advanced Vector Extensions instruction set + Embedded Systems ◼ The use of electronics and software within a product ◼ Billions of computer systems are produced each year that are embedded within larger devices ◼ Today many devices that use electric power have an embedded computing system ◼ Often embedded systems are tightly coupled to their environment ◼ This can give rise to real-time constraints imposed by the need to interact with the environment ◼ Constraints such as required speeds of motion, required precision of measurement, and required time durations, dictate the timing of software operations ◼ If multiple activities must be managed simultaneously this imposes more complex real-time constraints  Custom logic Processor Memory Human Diagnostic interface port A/D D/A conversion Conversion Actuators/ Sensors indicators Figure 1.14 Possible Organization of an Embedded System + The Internet of Things (IoT) ◼ Term that refers to the expanding interconnection of smart devices, ranging from appliances to tiny sensors ◼ Is primarily driven by deeply embedded devices ◼ Generations of deployment culminating in the IoT: ◼ Information technology (IT) ◼ PCs, servers, routers, firewalls, and so on, bought as IT devices by enterprise IT people and primarily using wired connectivity ◼ Operational technology (OT) ◼ Machines/appliances with embedded IT built by non-IT companies, such as medical machinery, SCADA, process control, and kiosks, bought as appliances by enterprise OT people and primarily using wired connectivity ◼ Personal technology ◼ Smartphones, tablets, and eBook readers bought as IT devices by consumers exclusively using wireless connectivity and often multiple forms of wireless connectivity ◼ Sensor/actuator technology ◼ Single-purpose devices bought by consumers, IT, and OT people exclusively using wireless connectivity, generally of a single form, as part of larger systems ◼ It is the fourth generation that is usually thought of as the IoT and it is marked by the use of billions of embedded devices + Embedded Application Processors Operating versus Systems Dedicated Processors ◼ There are two general ◼ Application processors approaches to developing an ◼ Defined by the processor’s ability to execute complex operating embedded operating system systems (OS): ◼ General-purpose in nature ◼ Take an existing OS and ◼ An example is the smartphone – the embedded system is designed adapt it for the embedded to support numerous apps and application perform a wide variety of functions ◼ Design and implement an ◼ Dedicated processor OS intended solely for ◼ Is dedicated to one or a small embedded use number of specific tasks required by the host device ◼ Because such an embedded system is dedicated to a specific task or tasks, the processor and associated components can be engineered to reduce size and cost  Processor Analog data A/D Temporary RAM acquisition converter data Analog data D/A Program ROM transmission converter and data Send/receive Serial I/O Permanent EEPROM data ports data Peripheral Parallel I/O Timing TIMER interfaces ports System functions bus Figure 1.15 Typical Microcontroller Chip Elements + Deeply Embedded Systems ◼ Subset of embedded systems ◼ Has a processor whose behavior is difficult to observe both by the programmer and the user ◼ Uses a microcontroller rather than a microprocessor ◼ Is not programmable once the program logic for the device has been burned into ROM ◼ Has no interaction with a user ◼ Dedicated, single-purpose devices that detect something in the environment, perform a basic level of processing, and then do something with the results ◼ Often have wireless capability and appear in networked configurations, such as networks of sensors deployed over a large area ◼ Typically have extreme resource constraints in terms of memory, processor size, time, and power consumption ARM Refers to a processor architecture that has evolved from RISC design principles and is used in embedded systems Family of RISC-based microprocessors and microcontrollers designed by ARM Holdings, Cambridge, England Chips are high-speed processors that are known for their small die size and low power requirements Probably the most widely used embedded processor architecture and indeed the most widely used processor architecture of any kind in the world Acorn RISC Machine/Advanced RISC Machine + ARM Products Cortex-M Cortex-M0 Cortex-R Cortex-M0+ Cortex-M3 Cortex- Cortex-M4 A/Cortex- A50 + Cloud Computing ◼ NIST defines cloud computing as: “A model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction.” ◼ You get economies of scale, professional network management, and professional security management ◼ The individual or company only needs to pay for the storage capacity and services they need ◼ Cloud provider takes care of security Cloud Networking ◼ Refers to the networks and network management functionality that must be in place to enable cloud computing ◼ One example is the provisioning of high-performance and/or high- reliability networking between the provider and subscriber ◼ The collection of network capabilities required to access a cloud, including making use of specialized services over the Internet, linking enterprise data center to a cloud, and using firewalls and other network security devices at critical points to enforce access security policies Cloud Storage ◼ Subset of cloud computing ◼ Consists of database storage and database applications hosted remotely on cloud servers ◼ Enables small businesses and individual users to take advantage of data storage that scales with their needs and to take advantage of a variety of database applications without having to buy, maintain, and manage the storage assets + Summary Basic Concepts and Computer Evolution Chapter 1 ◼ Organization and architecture ◼ Embedded systems ◼ Structure and function ◼ The Internet of things ◼ Brief history of computers ◼ Embedded operating systems ◼ The First Generation: Vacuum ◼ Application processors versus tubes dedicated processors ◼ The Second Generation: Transistors ◼ Microprocessors versus ◼ The Third Generation: Integrated microcontrollers Circuits ◼ Embedded versus deeply ◼ Later generations embedded systems ◼ The evolution of the Intel x86 architecture ◼ ARM architecture ◼ ARM evolution ◼ Cloud computing ◼ Instruction set architecture ◼ Basic concepts ◼ ARM products ◼ Cloud services