Early Theatre: Asian PDF

286 EARLY THEATRE: ASIAN 12 For 1,000 years, from approximately 350 to 1350 c.e., there was no organized theatre in the West. But on the continent of Asia, thousands of miles away, theatre had begun to emerg...

286 EARLY THEATRE: ASIAN 12 For 1,000 years, from approximately 350 to 1350 c.e., there was no organized theatre in the West. But on the continent of Asia, thousands of miles away, theatre had begun to emerge. The development of theatre began in India more than 2,000 years ago, and theatre later became well established in China while formal theatre was still moribund in the West. Theatre in Japan followed not long after. These traditions of Asian theatre, established centuries ago, continue to the present day. THE THEATRES OF ASIA: BACKGROUND The people who created theatre in Asia knew nothing of the theatres of Greece or Rome. In the chapter “Early Theatres: Greek, Roman, and Medieval ,” we mentioned the universal tendency toward theatre; and except where theatre is expressly forbidden by religious or other laws, it is likely to emerge in any civi- lization. This was true in India, China, and Japan—the countries we will focus on in this ­chapter—and also in other Asian countries, such as Indonesia. Each of the Asian theatres is unique, but these theatres also have aspects in common that set them apart from Western theatre. To mention two: They rely much more on dance than Western theatre does (in many instances, Asian theatri- cal presentations could be called dance dramas), and they more heavily emphasize symbolism. All the great Asian traditions—including those of India, China, and Japan—have created and sustained one form or another of what has been described NŌ: CLASSIC JAPANESE THEATRE Theatre began to develop in various parts of the world many years ago. In India, China, and other parts of the Asian continent, theatre emerged between 350 b.c.e. and 1350 c.e. It developed initially in India and China. In Japan, it appeared first during the fourteenth century. One of the three major classic forms of Japanese theatre is nō. Shown here is a scene from a recent performance in Tokyo of a nō play. Nō as well as kabuki and bunraku are classic theatrical forms that have been kept alive in Japan for many centuries. (©Koichi Kamoshida/Getty Images News/Getty Images) 287  ASIA TH E ATR E Year c.e. C U LT U R E A N D P O L I T I C S In India, spread of Buddhism; trade with China, Egypt, Natyasastra, major critical work of Indian Sanskrit 100 Rome, southeast Asia; Gandhara school of art flourishes drama (c.200 b.c.e.–200 c.e.) (180–150 b.c.e.) The Little Clay Cart, Indian Sanskrit drama attributed 200 Golden age of classical Sanskrit to King Shudraka (second or third century) in India (300–500) 300 Sanskrit drama highly developed in India (320–600) Shakuntala, famous Sanskrit drama by Indian author Kalidasa (fourth or fifth century) 500 Earliest known use of zero and decimals occurs in India (600) Tang dynasty in China Travels in India of Xuan (618–907) Zang, Chinese pilgrim and chronicler (630–644) 700 Academy of the Pear Garden, school for dancers and singers, founded in China (714) 900 Development of professional theatre Song dynasty in China (960–1279); companies in China (960) flowering of arts, literature, and scholarship Indian dance drama, Decline of Sanskrit puppet plays, and folk drama (1150) 1100 Civil strife in Japan leads to military plays (late twelfth century) government (1100) Scholars and artists work in popular theatre in China Beginning of Muslim rule in India (1192) (thirteenth century) Yuan dynasty in Marco Polo visits court of China (1271–1368) Kublai Khan, Beijing, China (1271); Polo visits Kayal, southern India (1288) 1300 Zeami Motokiyo (1363–1444); development of nō drama Literary and romantic Ming dynasty in drama develops during China (1368–1644) Ming period in China Rule of Yoshimitsu (rules (1368–1664) 1395–1408) in Japan; years of stability followed by civil wars 1500 First Europeans visit Japan (1542) In Japan, kabuki first Period of national unification in Japan (1568–1600) performed in Kyoto (1600–1610) Nō becomes an aristocratic entertainment and rigidly codified (1650) Rule of Shah Jahan in India; Kabuki becomes popular form of theatre (1675–1750) Qing (Ching) construction of great buildings, Chikamatsu Monzaemon dynasty in China including Taj Mahal (1628–1657) begins writing for Bunraku (puppet theatre) 1700 (1644–1911) bunraku theatre (1684) formalized in Japan (1685) 288 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present as total theatre. In this type of theatre there is a synthesis or integration of ­elements—acting, mime, dancing, music, and text—more complete than in tradi- tional Western theatre. Though each of the Asian theatrical traditions is unique and self-contained, all have qualities that may seem familiar to Westerners who have been exposed to opera in which a colorful blending of ideas, art, and tech- nique is crucial. One reason why this kind of synthesis developed in Asia and found continued support lies in the fact that the religious roots of theatre are still kept alive there. Each of the three Asian traditions on which we will focus—Indian, Chinese, and Japanese—reached a high point of artistic excellence at a time when religion and philosophy were central in its culture. This level of excellence has kept the focus of traditional theatre at least allied to religion and philosophy, even when society itself changed and became modernized. We can speculate on the antecedents of theatre in India, China, and Japan, but the actual origins of theatre in each culture remain obscure. The high point, however, usually occurred when writers of poetic and intellectual ability began to create a dramatic tradition in which the text assumed a central place. What remained in later years was usually the words rather than the production style; this is, of course, partially explained by the fact that anything written, such as a script, has some permanence, whereas a performance is ephemeral. Thus, little is known of early performance practices in China or India. Japan, on the other hand, is unique in having preserved many of the ancient techniques of act- ing, dancing, and singing. Still, in all three theatres the ancient traditions—­ interpreted and reinterpreted as these cultures developed and changed—have continued to color and shape many later experiments. INDIAN THEATRE Indian history has been characterized as a succession of immigrations into the Indian subcontinent. Early traces of civilization there go back to 3000 b.c.e. The Aryans, who came into southern India 1,000 years later, left behind works in Sanskrit that constitute the basis of the great Indian literary traditions. Scholars believe that by 1000 b.c.e., certain fundamental aspects of Indian civilization were already established; one of these is the caste system under which people are classified by heredity: A person must remain in the caste to which he or she is born, and people are forbidden to change occupations. Around 400 b.c.e., Buddhism, which had its origins in India, reached a peak of development, and soon it became a major force throughout eastern and central Asia. Based on the ideas of Gautama Buddha (c. 563–483 b.c.e.), Buddhism teaches that suffering is inherent in life but that human beings can be liberated from suffering by mental and moral self-purification. King Asoka, who ruled in India about 240 b.c.e., managed to unite the whole nation under Buddhist rule, but a period of disorder and confusion followed until the Gupta dynasty began to unite the nation again around 320 c.e. It was at this time that another important thread in Indian history, Hindu culture, entered a golden age; and it was during the following centuries that the great Sanskrit dramas were written and performed. Hinduism stresses the belief that soul or spirit is the essence of life; that the goal of all people is to achieve oneness with the supreme world-soul, known as Brahman; and that the things of this life do not exist in the same way as Brahman, which is eternal, infinite, and indescribable. Chapter 12 Early Theatre: Asian 289  Sanskrit Drama What remains from the tradition of the Indian Golden Age is a group of plays written in Sanskrit, the language of the noble classes, to be performed in various court circles. There are between fifty and sixty plays that can be reliably assigned to this period, and the greatest of them are among the finest works of classical Indian literature. We have been provided a great insight into this early Indian theatre by a remark- able document called the Natyasastra (translated as The Study of Theatre or The Art of Theatre). The Natyasastra has been attributed to Bharata Muni but may well be by someone else, possibly by several people. Written sometime during the 400-year period between 200 b.c.e. and 200 c.e., it describes the mythological origin of theatre in India and also presents important material about the nature of Indian drama; it even includes a description of the theatre space in which performances took place. Rasa As defined in the In the course of this complex treatise, the author defines a quality called rasa, Natyasastra, quality or or flavor, which permits spectators to surrender themselves to a dramatic situation flavor that characterizes corresponding to some powerful feeling that they themselves possess. Theatre can a dramatic situation. thus serve as a means toward enlightenment; art becomes a way to move toward metaphysics and the divine. The Natyasastra also serves as a kind of encyclopedia of theatrical practice. In an abstract way, every element of the complex ancient theatre is treated, from gesture and posture to music, dance, voice, and so forth. Types of characters and categories of plays are discussed, and all this specific information is related in turn to a series of metaphysical principles, which, although perhaps difficult for the modern reader to grasp, are nevertheless challenging, even humbling, to read. From comments in a book entitled Mahabhasya (Great Commentary), some scholars believe that the main elements of Sanskrit drama, as described in the Natyasastra, were in place by 140 b.c.e. However, this is speculative and has not yet been proved. The earliest plays that survive, from the first and second centuries c.e., were written by Asvaghosa. As we have noted, these plays were written in Sanskrit, the classical language of the nobility, though some of the lover characters in the later plays speak a hybrid of Sanskrit and local dialect. Thus the plays had little following among the general public, who could not understand them. The plays usually drew on themes from Indian epic literature. From what we know, the most productive playwright of classical India was Bhasa, who may have lived around the second or third century c.e. Thirteen surviv- ing plays have been attributed to him, but it is not certain they are all his. Among the best-known plays of this general era is The Little Clay Cart, attributed to King Sudraka, although his identity and dates have not been clearly established. He is thought by many (though there is much disagreement) to have lived as late as the fifth century c.e. The Little Clay Cart concerns the love between a ruined merchant and a courtesan; its style is enlivened and enriched by politics and humor. The most famous Sanskrit play, however, comes from the fourth or fifth century. This is Shakuntala, which is usually considered the finest classical Indian drama and whose author, Kalidasa, is the greatest of the playwrights from the classic period. Kalidasa Though Shakuntala is an acknowledged masterpiece of Indian drama, almost nothing is known about its author, Kalidasa. Many scholars have attempted to establish his date of birth and to learn some details of his life, but they have had little success. Recent studies have placed his writings between 290 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present KATHAKALI: INDIAN DANCE DRAMA Much of Asian theatre includes a large element of dance. A prime example is kathakali, a dramatic form found in southwestern India. In kathakali, stories of strong passions, the furies of gods, and the loves and hates of extraordinary human beings are told in dance and mime. Notice the makeup and highly stylized costumes and headdresses on these dancers in a recent performance in Kerala, South India. (©Hideo Haga/The Image Works) the late fourth and mid-fifth century. There is no doubt, however, that Shakun- tala is a masterwork of Sanskrit drama. In seven acts, the play recounts the romance of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala, the foster daughter of a hermit, who secretly marry and are then subjected to a long separation brought about by the curse of an irate sage. After many trials, the lovers are reunited and the king finally meets his son and heir. Shakuntala, which is subtitled The Recovered Ring, has story elements such as a secret marriage, forgetfulness caused by a curse, and a magic ring. It also has ideas from Indian philosophy, religion, aesthetics, and psychology. Like all Sanskrit drama, it has both serious and comic elements and includes a large num- ber of locations and characters. It also includes supernatural elements. In addition, Shakuntala has a recognition scene in which the lovers confirm their identity through signs; this recognition through signs bears some resemblance to scenes in classic Greek tragedy. Chapter 12 Early Theatre: Asian 291  While Shakuntala follows traditional patterns of Sanskrit drama, it is set apart by Kalidasa’s delicate lyricism. Kalidasa wrote several poems that mingle love, nature imagery, and religion. He also wrote two other plays: Malavike and Agnimitra, a courtly comedy about a king’s love for one of the palace serving women, and Vikrama and Urvashi, a heroic mythological drama focusing on the love of a king and a nymph. Later Indian Drama Sanskrit drama—both the plays themselves and dramatic criticism—had faded by the end of the ninth century. By the twelfth century, the Arabs had begun to invade India, and in 1206 they established the sultanate of Delhi. With this series of invasions, the Hindu Sanskrit tradition disappeared. Under Islamic rule, theatrical activities were not encouraged and the old ways of performing were no longer maintained among educated people. However, folk dramas in the many vernacular languages of India had always been popular, and the continued performances of such works, while they may not have achieved a very high artistic level, helped to keep certain traditions alive. Many of these folk plays have continued to the present day. They used the same traditional epic materials as Sanskrit dramas, but most of them were created by dramatists whose names are now unknown, and the scripts—assuming that these dramas were written down—have not been preserved. Folk plays were extremely eclectic and emphasized spectacle rather than metaphysical profundity. Also popular with the public were dance dramas that took up aspects of Indian myths. In the performance of such dramas, movement, rather than the spoken word, was strongly emphasized. These and other developments in later Indian theatre, including a well-known dance-drama form called kathakali, will be dis- cussed in detail later. How Was Indian Drama Staged? Although we do not know exactly how plays were performed, we learn from the Natyasastra that each early troupe presenting Sanskrit theatre had a leader, the sudtradhara, who was the chief actor and also managed all others involved in production. Men were the main performers, but women played important roles too. Acting in this type of theatre was a skill that combined voice, body, emotions, costume, and makeup in an integrated whole. The typical theatre in which Sanskrit drama was performed was ninety-six feet long and forty-eight feet wide, divided equally into stage and auditorium, and its seating capacity was probably between 200 and 500. There were four pillars in the auditorium—colored white, yellow, red, or blue—indicating where mem- bers of different castes were to sit. A curtain divided the stage into two parts: one part for the action and the other for dressing rooms and a behind-the-scenes area. The few records available from the later period of Sanskrit drama indicate that most performances were given by troupes invited to the courts of the nobility, and performing spaces were arranged in courtyards and similar areas. Scenery was evidently not used, although elaborate costumes probably were. Dance, symbolic gestures, and music played an important part in the productions; but again, we have no specific information about performance practices. The plays often make use of fixed characters, such as a narrator and a clown; once again, there are no details concerning how these performers appeared onstage. 292 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present CHINESE THEATRE The civilization of China can be traced back to at least 2000 b.c.e., when a uni- fied culture spread over large parts of the area that is now the People’s Republic of China. The Shang Dynasty represents the first period that can be authenticated through artifacts and documents. The period following the Shang Dynasty was a turbulent era known as the Zhou Dynasty. The dates of both dynasties are some- what disputed. Traditionally, the Shang was thought to have been from 1766 to 1122 b.c.e., but some scholars suggest either 1600 or 1523 to 1028 b.c.e. The Zhou Dynasty was dated from 1122 to 256 b.c.e., but alternative dates have been offered: 1027 to 256 b.c.e. In any event, during the later Zhou Dynasty, Confucius, Lao-tzu, and Mencius—three of the greatest Chinese philosophers—lived and wrote. They formed part of the general background of religions, philosophies, and religious practices out of which later Chinese theatre developed. Confucianism was based on the teachings of Confucius (551–479 b.c.e.), whose ideas about the perfectibility of human beings were never wholly embraced in his lifetime but were widely adopted by later generations. Confucianism emphasized the responsibility of one individual or group to others: a ruler to his subjects, family members to one another, friends to friends. Taoism began in the sixth century b.c.e. with the teachings of Lao-tzu (born c. 604 b.c.e.), who believed in the importance of the tao, or path. Taoism stresses simplicity, patience, and nature’s harmony; following the tao, the path of the cosmos, leads to self-realization. A key element in the philoso- phy of Mencius (c. 371–288 b.c.e.) is that all people are good. Their innate moral sense can be cultivated, or it can be perverted by an u­ nfavorable ­environment. Another movement that was to influence the development of theatre, in China as well as in other societies, was shamanism, whose rituals combined costume, song, dance, and gesture. Shamans were spiritual leaders who were thought to have magical powers to communicate with the dead and to ward off evil spirits. Buddhism, too, found its way from India to China and was added to the religious thought and practice of the time. In terms of political developments, by 200 b.c.e. the centralized imperial system had been developed, and China was provided with a central government that continued to remain effective through many long periods of stability down to modern times. Early Theatre in China The early development of theatre in China—as with many other forms of Chinese art—was linked to the patronage of the imperial court. Popular forms of theatre may also have flourished, though no records of early folk performances survive. Records of court entertainments, however, go back as far as the fifth century b.c.e., and such diverse activities as skits, pantomimes, juggling, singing, and dancing are frequently mentioned in ancient chronicles. The court of the emperors during the Tang period (618–906 c.e.) was one of the high points of human culture. At this time there was a kind of actors’ training institute in the capital; it was called the Pear Garden and had been founded in 714. Details of activities and performances at the Pear Garden have not been preserved, but it firmly established a tradition of training theatrical performers. Comic skits, puppet shows, and storytelling were popular during the Tang period. In the Song Dynasty (960–1279), which preceded the coming of the Mongols, various court entertainments contributed to the development of what Chapter 12 Early Theatre: Asian 293  are known as variety plays. In addi- tion to court records, there are other documents recording the existence of traveling theatrical troupes, some permanent playhouses, and theatrical activity that involved not only actors, dancers, and singers but also shadow puppets and marionettes. Low com- edy was popular as well, and its effect must have been something like our vaudeville. A form that emerged in the prov- ince of Zhejiang, possibly in the early twelfth century, was called nanxi, EARLY CHINESE THEATRE which means “southern drama,” after This illustration depicts a Chinese theatre set up for a festival. Note the the region where it developed. covered stage on which the performers appear, and the audience members Indications are that at this time four able to stand on three sides of the stage. (©Culture Club/Hulton Archive/Getty Images) types of characters were predominant in Chinese theatre: the sheng, or male Sheng Male characters in character; the dan, or female character; the jing, or painted face; and the chou, popular twelfth century or clown. These were to remain staples of Chinese theatre in subsequent works. Chinese drama. As urban areas developed during the Song dynasty, theatres began to be built Dan Female characters in in designated locations to house these popular forms. In the twelfth century, one the popular twelfth century such entertainment area contained fifty distinct theatres of varying sizes. Chinese drama. A significant synthesis of art and popular tradition was to come in the dramas of the Yuan period, which followed the Song. Jing Characters with painted faces in popular twelfth century Chinese drama. Theatre in the Yuan Dynasty The Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368) was well known in the West through the writings Chou Clown characters in of the Italian explorer Marco Polo. The ruler at this time was not a Chinese popular twelfth century emperor but a Mongol, Kublai Khan, whose grandfather Genghis Khan had come Chinese drama. down from the north to conquer China. Although they tolerated many Chinese customs, the Mongols nevertheless dis- mantled much of the traditional bureaucracy. Ironically, this turned out to be an important impetus for the development of Chinese theatre. Earlier, the highly educated literati—literary intellectuals—had composed essays and poetry of the highest quality but had disdained plays as beneath their dignity. With the coming of the Mongols, many of the literati were no longer employed by the government and took up literary and theatrical work to make a living. In this way, high art and the popular theatrical tradition met. Because the complex mixture of cultural influences produced such a rich outpouring during the Yuan Dynasty, scholars have compared its theatre to that of Greece in the fifth century b.c.e. and to that of Elizabethan England. The form of drama perfected in the Yuan Dynasty, often referred to as zaju, usually had four acts or—perhaps more accurately since these plays used a great deal of music—four song sequences. Rather than writing specifically for the dra- mas, playwrights composed their texts to suit the rhythms and meters of popular music already known to the audience. Usually the protagonist sang all the music in any act. Unfortunately, none of the music has survived. The poetic content of these plays was considered the central factor in their suc- cess. Because of their lyrical nature, these dramas had only a few characters and 294 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present avoided subplots and other complications. Accounts from the Yuan period tell us that topics chosen by the playwrights ranged from love and romance to religion and history, domestic and social themes, crimes and lawsuits, and bandit heroes. Important Plays from the Yuan Period Though we do not know exactly how many plays were produced during the Yuan period, there are records indicating that more than 500 dramatists were writing at this time; and we know the titles of some 700 plays, of which 168 survive. Perhaps the most famous of the plays surviving from this period is The Romance of the Western Chamber, actually a cycle of plays, by Wang Shifu, who wrote in the late thirteenth century. These dramas chronicle the trials of two lovers—a handsome young student and a lovely girl of good family—who have been models for thousands of imitations down to the present century. The plays contain a certain amount of adventure and a good deal of superlative poetry. Another popular play that has survived is The Orphan of Chao, which deals with vengeance, sacrifice, and loyalty. The Orphan of Chao was one of the first Chinese plays known in the West, as a version of it was translated into French in 1735 and was adapted for the French stage by the philosopher Voltaire. Another popular Yuan drama, The Circle of Chalk, is an excellent example of the lawsuit-and-trial genre in which a clever, Solomon-like judge frees an inno- cent person accused of a crime. When the twentieth-century German playwright Bertolt Brecht saw a version of this play (it had been freely adapted and translated into German), he was so intrigued with the theme that he created his own version: The Caucasian Chalk Circle. One of the most prolific and respected playwrights of the Yuan period was Guan Hanquing (c. 1245–1322), who is credited with writing 65 plays, 14 of which survive. One of his best known, and frequently adapted by later writers, is Snow in Midsummer, also known as The Injustice to Dou E. Theatre Production in the Yuan Period Despite the fact that many Yuan texts survive and have been admired down to the present day, relatively little is known about how they were performed. Contemporary spectators left few records of their reactions, perhaps because theatregoing was regarded as beneath the notice of highly educated people. Nevertheless, in recent years careful scholarship has man- aged to piece together a certain amount of information on theatre presentations. Professional actors and actresses performed in Yuan dramas, and on occasion both would play male and female roles. Some of the actresses performed for private entertainments at the palace, and stories of their affairs in high society were as eagerly sought out as stories about the activities of today’s film and television stars. The performers were organized into troupes, some of which were run by women. Only meager information remains about the theatres used for these perfor- mances. Evidently, there was a bare stage with two doors on each side at the rear, and a painted cloth hanging between the doors. (This arrangement is shown in a wall hanging from northwestern China painted about 1324.) Most stages seem to have been built for outdoor use and were not roofed over. Curtains and such properties as swords and fans were used, but there is no evidence of any scenery. Much of the color of performances came from elaborate costumes. Some of the stylized robes, which are illustrated in artworks of the time, resemble those in modern Peking (or Beijing) opera. Makeup was also important and was evidently applied heavily in a stylized manner. Chapter 12 Early Theatre: Asian 295  Theatre in the Ming Dynasty By the end of the Yuan period, the level of accomplishment in theatre was very high and drama had become firmly established as a respectable art form. With the overthrow of the Mongols, however, and the establishment of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), a Chinese emperor was restored to the throne. At this point, the tra- ditional patterns of social behavior were restored; highly educated scholars were still able to write plays, but they tended to confine their efforts more and more to dramas that would please the elite. The theatre tended to become ornate and artificial; it lost contact with the broad mass of the public, which had originally supported it. What had been an active theatre in the Yuan Dynasty, responsive to general audiences, now became a kind of literary drama that emphasized poetry and was averse to sustained or powerful dramatic action. The structure of Ming plays often became far more complex than that of Yuan plays. Also, only one actor had sung in each act of a Yuan play, but several actors were now permitted to sing during an act, and the instrumental accompaniments became very elaborate. One of the earliest and best plays written in this expanded form is Lute Song by Gao Ming (c. 1301–1370), dealing with questions of family loyalty in a woman whose husband has abandoned her for political reasons. Lute Song contains strong characterizations and beautiful poetry and has been popular ever since its compo- sition; this story of a faithful wife even reached Broadway in a musical theatre version, also called Lute Song, written for Mary Martin in 1946. Backstage Raised seats Stage entrances GROUND PLAN OF A Stage TRADITIONAL CHINESE THEATRE Diagrammed here is the arrangement for seating in Chinese theatres for the Tables and stools for audience period from the seventeenth through the nineteenth centuries. Before that, performances were held in teahouses; when permanent theatres were built, tables with chairs around them were retained in the section nearest the stage. Women and commoners sat at the sides and back. Entrance 296 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present  Attempts to create drama of distinction during the Ming dynasty culminated in the works of Li Yu, a scholar who failed his examinations and became instead a playwright, theatre critic, and impresario. Li Yu Li Yu (1611–c. 1685), China’s first important drama theorist, believed that a playwright should write clearly, with a mass audience in mind, and should be well versed in practical stage knowledge. These conclusions were based on his own experience as a popular playwright. His writings on theatre—in which he dealt with such matters as plot construction, dialogue, music, and versification— are among the most important in the history of Chinese dramatic criticism. As a playwright, Li Yu wrote plays for entertainment and placed little empha- sis on the poetic songs that other playwrights favored. Instead, he developed well- made situation comedies with intricate plots and sophisticated dialogue. Rather than borrow his material from standard literary sources, Li created original plots based on the lives of common people. He was particularly skilled at writing strong characters for his young female performers. Most of his notable plays, including Ordained by Heaven, Be Circumspect in Conjugal Relationships, and The Error of the Kite, revolve around romantic themes. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, theatre, which was patronized almost entirely by the rich, began to lose any real contact with the larger public, and its vitality seeped away. Events in Chinese theatre following the Ming dynasty and into the modern period will be covered in later chapters. JAPANESE THEATRE Although the civilization of Japan is younger than that of China, the Japanese heritage is long and complex. The origins of the Japanese people are obscure, but anthropolo- gists have found artifacts suggesting migrations from such diverse areas as Siberia, Korea, south China, and southeast Asia. We know that by the fifth century c.e. the southern portions of Japan were consolidated and a series of capitals were established in the vicinity of present-day Kyoto. At the time, the Japanese followed a religion called Shinto, or the Way of the Gods, closely allied to nature and spirit worship. With the growing influence on the Japanese aristocracy of the Tang Dynasty in China (618–906 c.e.), Buddhism, a religion that was more sophisticated than Shinto in both ritual and doctrine, became a prevailing influence, first in court circles and then in the country as a whole. Influences from both Shinto and Buddhism were strong in the development of theatre in Japan. Early Theatre in Japan The earliest recorded theatrical activities in Japan are the court entertainments of the Heian period (794–1195 c.e.). These entertainments were influenced by Chinese models, but that is the only link—a very remote one—between the two traditions. Later, similar kinds of performances formed part of annual Shinto and Buddhist ceremonies. These were usually of a popular nature and included jug- gling, skits, dancing, and the like. The first great period in Japanese theatre occurred in the fourteenth century, not long after similar developments in China. The sudden and remarkable devel- Nō Rigidly traditional opment of nō (it is also spelled noh)—one of the three principal forms of tradi- form of Japanese drama tional Japanese theatre—came about when popular stage traditions were combined combining music, dance, with serious scholarly pursuits. and lyrics. Chapter 12 Early Theatre: Asian 297  Nō In the fourteenth century in Japan, there were a number of roving troupes of actors who performed in a variety of styles; some of their presentations were simply popular entertainment, but some aspired to art. One of the more artistic troupes was directed by the actor Kan’ami (1333–1384), who was also a playwright. A typical, well-known play by Kan’ami is Sotoba Komachi (Komachi at the Stupa), which was based on a familiar legend of the time. In this legend, Komachi, a beautiful but cruel woman, is pursued by a man named Shii no Shōshō. She tells him that he must call on her for 100 nights in a row, and for 99 nights he comes, in all kinds of weather. But on the hundredth night he dies. At the beginning of the play, two priests enter, discussing the virtues of fol- lowing Buddha. They then come upon an old woman—the leading actor in the mask and wig of Komachi in old age. She says that she was once beautiful but has grown old and lost her beauty. She argues with the priests about religion and then reveals who she is. She recounts the story of what she did to Shōshō. A presentation by Kan’ami’s troupe was seen by the shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1358–1408), a man of wealth, prestige, and enormous enthusiasm for the arts. Fascinated by what he saw, he arranged for Kan’ami’s son, Zeami, who was then twelve years old, to have a court education in order to improve the quality of his art. When Zeami succeeded his father as head of the troupe, it remained attached to the shogun’s court in Kyoto. With a patron of this caliber, Zeami was freed from financial problems and could devote himself to all aspects of theatre: writing plays, training actors, and constantly refining his own acting style, whose outlines had been inherited from his gifted father. Zeami Motokiyo More than 500 years after his death, Zeami Motokiyo (1363– 1443) is still considered the most important figure in the history of Japanese nō theatre. A gifted actor, Zeami brought new prestige to nō, and his plays remain an important part of its repertoire. He was most influential, however, as a theorist; in his writings, he established the aesthetic and philosophical basis of nō. Zeami became the director of his father’s troupe when Kan’ami died in 1384. He con- tinued to improve nō, borrowing elements of other, earlier, forms of dance drama. His 200 plays, 124 of which remain in the active nō repertory, incorporated his innovations; one of his best known plays is Atsumori. Zeami also began writing on the theory and philosophy of nō, presenting ideas that were heavily influenced by his study of Zen. In his several volumes of theoretical works, Zeami developed the concept of yūgen, the mysterious inner heart or spirit behind outward form. Yūgen is the aim of nō performances; another definition of it might be philosophical and physical gracefulness. Characteristics of Nō Theatre Under Zeami’s direction, nō became the dominant form of serious theatre in his generation, and it remained dominant well past 1600 until it was supplanted in the popular taste by bunraku and kabuki. Nō, as perfected by Zeami, was and is a remarkably successful synthesis of various theatrical forms into a single, total experience. Nō actors (there were no actresses in Zeami’s theatre) trained from childhood and became adept at singing, acting, dancing, and mime. The plays they performed were remarkably sophisticated in language and content and were all constructed around a definite series of organizational principles based on musical, psychological, and mimetic—or imitative—movements, which change gradually from a slow to a 298 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present fast tempo. Many of the greatest nō plays were writ- ten by Zeami himself. The stories considered appropriate for nō plays were often from literary or historical sources. One important source was a famous novel of Heian court life, Lady Murasaki’s Tale of Genji, written around 1000. Another important source was The Tale of the Heike, a chronicle of the devastating civil wars that destroyed the power of the aristocracy in Japan at the end of the Heian period in 1185. Nō characters were generally based on literary or historical figures already familiar to the audience. A nō play reveals some working out of passions felt by a character, who often appears as a ghost or spirit. The major roles in nō are the shite (SHEE-tay), or main character, who is often masked; the waki, a sup- porting character; and the tsure, an accompanying role. There may be various smaller parts as well, including a kyōgen (kee-OH-gehn), or comic character. The occasional comic elements in nō eventually developed as a separate form called kyōgen. Kyōgen plays, which use a good deal of folk humor and slap- stick, are still performed and appreciated today. The Kyōgen are usually performed without spe- cial costumes, masks, or wigs, except when a nō play is being parodied, in which case the appropriate nō mask is used. Parody and satire are common in NŌ PERFORMANCE TODAY Kyōgen, and no subject is sacrosanct or exempt from Traditional nō theatre is still performed in Japan and other being treated comically. A feudal lord, monk, or friar parts of the world, and its stylized acting, minimalist can be the main figure; so might a drunken or stupid settings, ornate costumes, and distinctive masks are still servant, a braggart, a shrew, or a gallant. used. Shown here is Terukazu Mizukami performing in a nō play Hagoromo (The Feather Robe) at the Iohji Temple Producing Nō Theatre The elegance, mystery, and in Fukushima, Japan in 2004. (©Jun Sato/Getty Images) beauty of nō have fascinated the Japanese since the time of Zeami, and the nō tradition, passed on from teacher to disciple, has been Shite Major role in nō. carried on to this day. In most of the larger Japanese cities, nō can be seen in Waki Supporting role in nō. excellent performances by troupes whose traditions go back to the fourteenth century—a remarkable legacy. Tsure Accompanying role Even the nō stage has remained roughly the same since the time of Zeami in nō. and his immediate successors. There is a bridge, called the hashigakari (ha-shee- Kyōgen Comic role in nō. gah-KAH-ree), which leads from the actors’ room offstage to the stage. The bridge Hashigakari Bridge in nō is normally about twenty feet long. The main playing space to which it leads is theatre on which the about eighteen feet square; it is roofed and has a ceremonial pine tree painted on performers make their the rear wall. At the back of the playing space is a narrow section for four musi- entrance from the dressing cians who accompany the play on flute, small hand drum, large hand drum, and area to the platform stage. stick drum. Nō theatres were originally outdoors, and the audience sat on three sides of the stage. The modern nō theatre is built inside a larger shell as though it were a giant stage set itself, and the audience sits on two sides. The temple roof above the stage is supported by four columns or pillars, each of which serves a definite purpose in the staging. In addition to the actors and musicians, in nō there is a chorus of ten men who serve as a very rough Chapter 12 Early Theatre: Asian 299  ℰx p e r i e n c i n g 𝒯h e a t r e ℋis t o r y SOTOBA KOMACHI 1 4 1 3 , K i t a n o Te m p l e , space for the shogun and members of who she is. She recounts the story of J a p a n The year is 1413. In Japan, his court, or at a temple for a select what she did to Shōshō. at the Kitano temple, a platform audience. But here at the Kitano tem- As the play progresses, the audi- stage, with a floor of polished wood, ple, performances will go on for ence watches Zeami’s performance has been set up. There is also a seven days and will be open to every- with rapt attention. At one point, wooden walkway, or bridge, on which one; as one later commentator will his character becomes possessed: actors can move to the stage from a explain: “All were admitted, rich and The spirit of Shōshō takes over dressing room set up in one of the poor, old and young alike.” Komachi, and Zeami acts this out temple buildings. The spectators are As with all nō performances, sev- in pantomime to a musical accom­ on three sides of this platform stage. eral plays will be presented each day. paniment. At times, he acts out The actor performing today is The play the audience awaits now, Komachi’s part while her lines are Zeami. He is fifty years old and has Sotoba Komachi, was written by chanted by a chorus of ten or twelve been under the patronage of the sho- Zeami’s father. In it, Zeami portrays a men sitting at the side of the stage. gun of Japan since he was twelve. woman. (As in ancient Greek theatre, At another point, Komachi is Zeami’s father, Kan’ami, was a re- all the performers in nō are men.) dressed as Shōshō and becomes nowned actor before him, and Zeami The legend of Komachi is as well him, feeling his death agony. Zeami has carried his father’s art to even known to the audience as the story of performs this sequence as a mes- greater heights. He has studied differ- Antigone was to the Greeks. K ­ omachi, merizing, frightening dance. At the ent acting styles, perfected his own a beautiful but cruel woman, is end of the play, the spirit of Shōshō technique, trained other actors, and ­pursued by a man named Shii no leaves Komachi, and she prays to written plays for them to perform. Shōshō. She tells him that he must Buddha for guidance and for a The theatre he has fashioned call on her for 100 nights in a row, peaceful life in the hereafter. from all this is called nō; it has ele- and for 99 nights he comes in all The audience members, who have ments of opera, pantomime, and for- kinds of weather. But on the hun- heard a great deal about Zeami but mal, stylized dance. In nō theatre, dredth night he dies. On that night have never before seen him perform, the main character, who wears a a snowstorm is raging and he falls, watch in awe. Throughout, he plays beautifully carved, hand-painted exhausted, to die on her doorstep. the various parts with astounding wooden mask, recites his or her ad- When the play begins, we see two grace, subtlety, and understatement, ventures to the constant accompani- priests enter. As they discuss the vir- developed through years of training ment of several onstage musicians. tues of following Buddha, they come and performance. The segments Toward the end of the play, the chief upon an old woman. This is Zeami in when he lets go—as in Shōshō’s actor will perform a ritualistic dance the mask and wig of Komachi in old death agony—are all the more effec- that includes symbolic gestures of age. She is a wretched woman ap- tive because of their contrast with the the head and hands and stomps of proaching her hundredth birthday. measured quality of the rest. For the the feet on the wooden floor. Komachi tells how she was once audience, the play is a revelation of The crowd is gathered today for a beautiful but has lost her beauty and how moving a theatrical performance special reason. Usually, Zeami per- grown old. She argues with the can be—an experience unlike any forms only in a restricted theatre priests about religion and then reveals they have had before. equivalent of the chorus in Greek theatre. Nō actors move in a highly stylized fashion that involves important elements of both dance and pantomime. During the performance of a nō text, the actors alternate sections of chanting with a kind of heightened speech that might best be compared to recitative, sung 300 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present dialogue in Western opera. The costumes made for nō are usually of great elegance, and the masks worn by the shite are Dressing among the most beautiful, subtle, and room Curtain effective created for any theatre. Bridg e Rear stage Bunraku Nō remained the most popular theatrical form of theatre during Japan’s medieval period. During the sixteenth century, civil Chorus Stage wars and other disturbances caused politi- Audience cal disarray of increasing gravity until a general, Tokugawa Ieyasu, unified the country in 1600. All through the long Tokugawa period (1600–1868), which bears his family name, Japan was unified and at peace, but this calm was purchased Audience at a price. Alarmed at the political maneu- vering of Japan’s growing number of Christians, who had been converted by European missionaries, the Tokugawa family outlawed Christianity and cut Japan GROUND PLAN OF A TRADITIONAL NŌ THEATRE off from any extensive contact with either Nō theatre of Japan—a stylized theatre originally for the upper classes—began nearly 600 years ago. It was performed outdoors; a China or Europe until the middle of the ramp at the left led from a dressing room to the wooden platform stage. nineteenth century. Spectators sat on two sides of the stage, to the left and in front. Peace did bring a rapid development of commerce and trade that led to increas- ingly sophisticated urban life. As the merchant class grew, its members’ wealth and their increasing leisure time allowed them to patronize various entertainments. The aristocracy and the Tokugawa family continued to support nō as a kind of private state theatre, but the merchants supported theatrical arts that more closely mirrored their own world. These entertainments flourished in large cities, such as Osaka, Kyoto, and Edo (now Tokyo). Before we turn to puppet theatre—bunraku—and to the later kabuki, it is worth noting that both forms of theatre can be understood more fully if one takes into account certain tenets of neo-Confucianism. These tenets form the basis of rigid codes of behavior regarding such matters as sacrifice, loyalty, and revenge as found in the class system and the samurai code of the warrior aristocracy of Japan. These strict codes of behavior, in turn, are reflected in the theatrical pre- sentations of bunraku and kabuki. Of the new popular forms of theatre that developed in Japanese cities, puppet theatre was the first. Since the nineteenth century, this puppet theatre has been called bunraku (buhn-RAH-koo), a name that derives from a famous puppeteer. Bunraku Japanese It developed in a most unusual way. One widespread form of entertainment in the puppet theatre. medieval period was the art of the chanter—who, with his biwa (a kind of large lute), would travel around the countryside intoning chronicles of wars and tales of romantic heroes and heroines. Between 1570 and 1600 the samisen, a three- stringed instrument something like a banjo, replaced the biwa as the chief instru- ment accompanying the chanter. By around 1600, it became customary to add to these performances, as a kind of extra attraction, companies of puppeteers who Chapter 12 Early Theatre: Asian 301 JAPANESE BUNRAKU: PUPPET THEATRE Bunraku—puppet theatre—became a popular form in Japan in the 1600s. In bunraku, unlike traditional Western puppet theatre, the puppeteers are in full view of the audience and are almost always dressed in black. Often, the story is delivered by a chanter, with the puppets dramatizing the action. Because the puppets are very complex, there is usually more than one puppeteer controlling each of them, as is the case in the photo shown here. (©Kyodo/AP Images) would act out the stories, “illustrating” the chanter’s music. The introduction of the samisen and the puppeteers made possible the development of bunraku. Jōruri In Japanese puppet The chanted texts are called jōruri (joh-ROO-ree) after the name of a popular theatre, chanted text. female character in one of the recited tales. The chanters, down to the present day, have been regarded with the kind of awe reserved for opera singers in the West. The chanters perform all the voices in a play, as well as the narration, and set the general mood. Originally, they also wrote their own scripts. Eventually, however, it became customary to ask someone else to write the text. In bunraku, the puppets representing important characters are manipulated by three people: one for the legs, one for the left arm, and the chief handler for the head and right arm. The chief handler is often dressed in an elaborate, gorgeous costume, but the other handlers are dressed in black and are assumed to be invis- ible. The puppets, which today are approximately two-thirds life-size, were origi- nally smaller. Bunraku reached its characteristic form in the 1730s when it became a three-man form. Before that, a significant step in its development was taken in 1685, when the writer Chikamatsu began to collaborate with Takemoto Gidayu, the outstanding bunraku chanter of the day. The first and undoubtedly the best of the bunraku writers, Chikamatsu contributed enormously to the transformation of this popular form into a vehicle for great art. 302 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present Chikamatsu Monzaemon Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653–1725) was born to a provincial samurai family in 1653 and became the first important Japanese dra- matist since the great period of nō drama 300 years earlier. His family apparently had literary interests; in 1671, they published a collection of haiku poetry that included some pieces by the future dramatist. Chikamatsu did not begin to write plays until the age of thirty, but thereafter he was a prolific writer. His best-known dramas were written for the puppet the- atre, bunraku. He is one of the world’s only major dramatists to write primarily for that form. He also wrote for kabuki theatre (discussed below), and many of his puppet plays were later adapted for kabuki. As a playwright, Chikamatsu used his knowledge of Japanese life to create vivid, detailed, and accurate pictures of his society. His history or heroic plays are loosely constructed stories about the nobility; they sometimes feature military pageantry and supernatural apparitions. In his domestic dramas he explored the problems of the middle and lower classes; many of these plays are based on actual events. Often, his domestic plays deal with unhappy lovers, who may even be driven to suicide by the problems they face. Both Chikamatsu’s history plays and his domestic plays are known for the beauty of his poetry, which elevates the incidents and the characters. Western critics have compared Chikamatsu to both Shakespeare and Marlowe because of the quality of his verse and his knowledge of society. His most famous history play is The Battles of Coxinga (1715). His notable domestic dramas include The Love Suicides at Sonezaki (1703), The Uprooted Pine (1718), The Courier for Hell (1711), The Woman Killer and the Hell of Oil (1721), and The Love Suicides at Amijima (1721). Chikamatsu spoke of maintaining in his dramas “what lies in the slender margin between the real and the unreal,” and this quality, plus his remarkable ability as a poet, has kept his plays popular. His emphasis on ordinary people, too, not only was new to the Japanese stage but also foreshadowed later develop- ments in European theatre. Kabuki In the early seventeenth century a new form of Japanese theatre, kabuki, had Kabuki Form of popular emerged. Combining elements of nō, bunraku, and folk theatre, kabuki became Japanese theatre the most popular form of theatre in Japan throughout the seventeenth century combining music, dance, despite challenges and other vicissitudes. It has remained a part of the theatre and dramatic scenes. scene in Japan in the centuries between and is still performed today. Origins of Kabuki: Okuni of Izumo According to Japanese legend, credit for developing kabuki, the most popular form of traditional Japanese theatre, belongs to a Shinto priestess, Okuni of Izumo (born in the late sixteenth century). Though little is known of her life or of the circumstances that led to the development of kabuki, tradition holds that in 1603 this priestess began kabuki by dancing on a temporary stage set up in the dry bed of the Kamo River in Kyoto. Probably, Okuni’s early dances were of Buddhist origin and had been secular- ized by being intermingled with folk dances. It is said that Nagoya Sanzaemon, a samurai warrior who is believed to have been Okuni’s lover, taught her adapta- tions of dances from nō, the samurai-sponsored drama of the period. She might have used nō dances as well as elements of popular dances, but no detailed descriptions of her performances survive. Chapter 12 Early Theatre: Asian 303 ORIGINS OF KABUKI: OKUNI OF IZUMO One branch of the classic Japanese theatre is kabuki, which is supposed to have originated with the performer Okuni. In this drawing, from a 17th century Japanese scroll, Okuni (center) is seen dancing in a Shinto temple in Kyoto. (©bpk, Berlin/Art Resource) That her dances were popular, however, is shown by the fact that she and her troupe toured Japan in 1603. Okuni used a stage similar to the nō stage for the performances of her group. In 1607 she performed for the shogun. The kabuki developed by Okuni became so popular that in 1616—only a few years after she had begun her performances—there were seven licensed kabuki the- atres in Kyoto. Development of Kabuki Dance was the basis of early kabuki performances, and the musical dance-dramas that developed revolved around stories that were roman- tic and often erotic. As a composite entertainment appealing to townspeople, kabuki was seen by some authorities as an unsettling influence on the rigid social and artistic structure. A fascinating series of events occurred in the early days of kabuki related to social concerns and problems of gender and sex. Originally, most of the performers were women; but when social disruptions arose because of feuds over the sexual services of the women, the authorities intervened, and in 1629 women’s kabuki was banned. Thereafter, young boys performed kabuki; but eventually it was felt that they, too, as sexual targets of older men in the 304 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present audience, were causing problems of social and class conflicts, and so in 1652 the authorities also banned boys’ troupes. In addition to concerns about sexual relationships between performers and audience members, the authorities also worried about the mingling of different classes and improper displays by samurai at kabuki performances. After 1652, therefore, men’s troupes, in which sexual glamour was deemphasized, became the rule—a custom that remains to the present day. Though the men’s troupes were heavily regulated, kabuki flourished in the following centuries and the eroticism that had marked kabuki in the early days was reintroduced. Part of this is due to the necessary development of the art of female impersonation by the male performers. Kabuki was greatly indebted to the plays and performance of puppet theatre, including scenes in which actors imitated puppets’ movements. At least half of the current kabuki repertoire was adapted from puppet theatre. Both kabuki and the puppets were less formal and distant than nō, which remained largely the theatre of the samurai class. Still, many samurai—despite official restrictions on their doing so—secretly attended kabuki, whose action, spectacle, and rhetoric they preferred to the solemnities of nō. As kabuki itself became popular, the playwright Chikamatsu tried writing for troupes of kabuki actors and wrote off and on for kabuki for many years. Eventually, however, he abandoned the attempt because these performers, it is assumed, unlike chanters, tended to change his lines. Kabuki actors founded dynasties, many of KABUKI PERFORMANCE TODAY Seen here is a kabuki actor performing Fuji Musume (Wisteria Maiden). Today, all roles in kabuki are performed by men; most of the actors are descended from generations of kabuki performers and train for years. Note the heavy, stylized makeup, which covers the entire face; the ornate costume; and the highly theatrical wig. The costumes, makeup, gestures, and stage configuration are part of a long-standing tradition. (©Universal Images Grou/AGE Fotostock) Chapter 12 Early Theatre: Asian 305  them still active. A kabuki dynasty that lasted through twelve generations was founded by Ichikawa Danjuro (1660– 1704), who became known as Danjuro I Revolving M and who began a bravura acting style s’ stage us i c ian ici known as aragato. Many actors came to s m an Mu roo s fame in Chushingura or The Forty-Seven Rōnin, a frequently revived play originally Stage written for puppets. It is perhaps Japan’s most popular history play. The play is based on an actual historical incident in which a provincial lord was provoked into an act of violence and forced to commit Hanamichi, or walkway to stage ritual suicide. It traces the vendetta or revenge of the forty-seven retainers who are left behind and is a remarkable blend of adventure, pathos, and romance. Ghost Audience stories, too, were popular dramas in the kabuki repertoire. Producing Kabuki Kabuki actors are trained from childhood in vocal technique, dancing, acting, and physical versatility. The male actors who play women’s A KABUKI THEATRE parts—these actors are called onnagata— Kabuki, a 400-year-old Japanese theatre, is performed today in elaborate are particularly skillful at imitating the spaces with staging devices that include onstage turntables for shifting essence of a feminine personality through scenery. As shown in this ground plan, the stage covers the entire front of the theatre and is approached by a ramp—the hanamichi—on which stylized gestures and attitudes. Costumes performers make dramatic entrances and exits. and makeup in kabuki are elegant and gorgeous, although they may often be strikingly gritty and realistic. The effect Onnagata In Japanese of an actor’s performance is frequently quite theatrical and a bit larger than life. kabuki, women’s roles Again, however, it must be emphasized that, for all its theatricality, kabuki actually played by men. expresses a wide range of styles, from the fantastical to the realistic. The stage used for kabuki performances underwent various changes during the history of this art, but the fundamental arrangement was reached in the mid- nineteenth century and then altered somewhat after 1853, when Japan was opened to the West. The stage is wide and has a relatively low proscenium. Musicians— sometimes onstage, sometimes offstage—generally accompany the stage action. Kabuki features elaborate and beautiful scenic effects, including the revolving stage, which was developed in Japan before it was used in the West. Another Hanamichi In kabuki device used in kabuki is the hanamichi (hah-nah-MEE-chee), or “flower way,” a theatre, a bridge running raised narrow platform connecting the rear of the auditorium with the stage. from behind the audience Actors often make entrances and exits on the hanamichi and occasionally perform (toward the left side of the short scenes there as well. audience) to the stage. Some kabuki plays use a second or temporary hanamichi down the aisle on Performers can enter on the audience’s opposite side. The stage is also well equipped with large and small the hanamichi; important scenes may also be played elevator traps, used to lift actors in tableaux as well as spectacular settings, which on it. come into view as the audience watches. There is even a small trap on the hanamichi that allows supernatural characters to emerge (or disappear) in the midst of the audience. 306 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present  IN FOCUS: KABUKI TODAY In the first decade after World War II, kabuki struggled Japanese kabuki troupes frequently undertake tours since many of the theatres were destroyed and there was across the world, playing in major cities in Asia, a general rejection of past forms by the defeated J­ apanese ­Europe, and the Americas. population. However, a number of innovative directors Kabuki has also influenced Western theatre practice and popular actors helped resuscitate the classical the- with many of its unique characteristics employed by atre. Today, unlike many other classical theatres, kabuki innovative directors. There have been productions of remains extremely popular with audiences throughout canonical Western works, including plays by Shake- Japan, with its star actors highly recognized and also speare, which have employed the theatrical conventions appearing in other roles on television and in film. of the kabuki theatre. In addition, kabuki theatre There are also significant kabuki theatres still stag- troupes have been established in countries outside of ing traditional productions in Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka Japan in an attempt to preserve this tradition through- as well as smaller companies throughout the country. out our global society. SOUTHEAST ASIA: SHADOW PLAYS Though we have focused on theatre in India, China, and Japan, it is important to remember that considerable theatre activity has occurred in other parts of Asia, such as Korea and the southeastern countries of Myanmar (Burma), Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. Though each of these south- eastern nations has its own theatrical history and tradition, all of them share certain characteristics. Most of their theatrical styles were influenced by the the- atre of India and in some instances by that of China. In virtually every one of these countries we note the influence of two epics from India, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. These stories and others are almost always performed as dance drama, classical dance, or puppet theatre. As is true in other Asian countries, theatrical presentations combine dance, song, movement, and recited text with elaborate costumes. It is worth noting that most of these countries do not even have a word in their language that denotes a dramatic form that is only written or spoken. One type of theatrical activity that came to prominence in southeast Asia in the eleventh century is particularly significant. This was the shadow play, which Shadow play A play is widely performed in Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia. It appears to have been performed widely in developed most fully in Java, an Indonesian island. Wayang (WHY-young) is the Thailand, Malaysia, and term that usually refers to Indonesian puppet theatre but is also used sometimes Indonesia involving to refer to live dance performances. intricately carved flat leather puppets that create The best known form of a shadow play uses flat puppets made of leather. patterns of light and These figures are intricately carved to create patterns of light and shadow when shadow when their image is their image is projected on a screen. The puppets are manipulated by sticks attached projected on a screen. to the head, the arms, and other parts of the body. The person manipulating the puppets also narrates the drama and speaks the dialogue of the characters. Shadow Wayang Term usually plays usually take place at night—sometimes they last all night long—and are referring to Indonesian shadow plays but accompanied by music and sound effects. In various places, other theatrical forms sometimes used for live have been developed from shadow puppets. One variation uses three-dimensional dance performances. doll puppets; another uses human performers wearing masks. Chapter 12 Early Theatre: Asian 307  PLAYING YOUR PART: THINKING ABOUT THEATRE 1. Describe the origins of Asian theatres. How are they similar to the origins of the Western theatres discussed earlier? 2. Asian theatre is often referred to as total theatre because of its mixture of drama, music, and dance. What are some examples of total theatre in today’s Western theatre? 3. Many of the Asian theatres employ puppets. Are puppets popular in today’s theatre? How is the use of puppets today different from the use of puppets in the traditional Asian theatres? 4. Many of the Asian theatres employ men to play female roles. What are your thoughts about this convention? Identify contemporary examples of men playing women in film, television, or the theatre. 5. Some of the Asian theatres evolved into entertainment for the elite members of their societies. Name at least three examples of entertainment today that appeal primarily to a specific group of individuals. SHADOW PUPPETS A longtime theatrical tradition in southeast Asia is shadow puppets. Shadow play or shadow puppetry is an ancient form of storytelling and entertainment using opaque, often articulated figures in front of an illuminated backdrop to create the illusion of moving images. It is thought to have originated in China during the Song Dynasty (960–1127), and later spread to southeast Asia, particularly Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. At present, more than twenty countries are known to have shadow show troupes. The figures are manipulated by puppeteers holding sticks attached to the puppets, which themselves are intricately carved flat figures, made of leather, that create patterns of light and shadow when projected on a screen. Above are examples of Javanese shadow puppets. (©jatmika jati/Shutterstock.com RF) 308 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present SUMMARY 1. The traditional theatres of Asia originated from religious ceremonies and concepts. 2. Most of these theatres are highly theatrical and stylized and fuse acting, mime, dance, music, and text. 3. In India in the fourth and fifth centuries c.e., a theatre of a very high order—­Sanskrit drama—came to full flower. Its origins and dramatic rules were outlined in a reveal- ing document call the Natyasastra. 4. In China, an acting school called the Pear Garden flourished in the early eighth century and professional theatre companies flourished in the tenth century. 5. The first significant Chinese theatre from which we have surviving manuscripts emerged during the Yuan Dynasty from 1271 to 1368. During the succeeding Ming Dynasty, from 1368 to 1644, theatre became more “literary” and less in touch with ordinary people. 6. In Japan, the first important theatre form was nō, which emerged in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and is still performed today. 7. Bunraku—puppet theatre—came on the scene in Japan in the seventeenth century followed closely by kabuki. Both bunraku and kabuki are still performed in Japan today. 8. Like most Asian theatres, nō, kabuki, and bunraku are complex forms; to understand them, audiences need to be aware of their intricate conventions. 9. Considerable theatrical activity has also taken place elsewhere in Asia; one example is the shadow plays performed in Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Design elements: Playing Your Part box (theatre seats): ©McGraw-Hill Education; In Focus box (spotlight): ©d_gas/Getty Images Chapter 12 Early Theatre: Asian 309