Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology Chapter 10: Blood PDF

Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology Seventh Edition Elaine N. Marieb Chapter 10 Blood Slides 10.1 – 10.31 Lecture Slides in PowerPoint by...

Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology Seventh Edition Elaine N. Marieb Chapter 10 Blood Slides 10.1 – 10.31 Lecture Slides in PowerPoint by Jerry L. Cook Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Blood  The only fluid tissue in the human body  Classified as a connective tissue  Living cells = formed elements  Non-living matrix = plasma Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.2  Blood Figure 10.1 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.3  Physical Characteristics of Blood  Color range Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red  Oxygen-poor blood is dull red  pH must remain between 7.35–7.45  Blood temperature is slightly higher than body temperature Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.4  Blood Plasma  Composed of approximately 90 percent water  Includes many dissolved substances  Nutrients  Salts (metal ions)  Respiratory gases  Hormones  Proteins  Waste products Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.5  Plasma Proteins  Albumin – regulates osmotic pressure  Clotting proteins – help to stem blood loss when a blood vessel is injured  Antibodies – help protect the body from antigens Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.6  Formed Elements  Erythrocytes = red blood cells  Leukocytes = white blood cells  Platelets = cell fragments Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.7 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.8 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.9  Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)  The main function is to carry oxygen  Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes  Biconcave disks  Essentially bags of hemoglobin  Anucleate (no nucleus)  Contain very few organelles  Outnumber white blood cells 1000:1 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.10  Hemoglobin  Iron-containing protein  Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen  Each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen binding sites  Each erythrocyte has 250 million hemoglobin molecules Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.11  Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)  Crucial in the body’s defense against disease  These are complete cells, with a nucleus and organelles  Able to move into and out of blood vessels (diapedesis)  Can move by ameboid motion  Can respond to chemicals released by damaged tissues Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.12  Leukocyte Levels in the Blood  Normal levels are between 4,000 and 11,000 cells per millimeter  Abnormal leukocyte levels  Leukocytosis  Above 11,000 leukocytes/ml  Generally indicates an infection  Leukopenia  Abnormally low leukocyte level  Commonly caused by certain drugs Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.13  Types of Leukocytes  Granulocytes  Granules in their cytoplasm can be stained  Include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils Figure 10.4 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.14  Types of Leukocytes  Agranulocytes  Lack visible cytoplasmic granules  Include lymphocytes and monocytes Figure 10.4 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.15  Granulocytes  Neutrophils  Multilobed nucleus with fine granules  Act as phagocytes at active sites of infection  Eosinophils  Large brick-red cytoplasmic granules  Found in repsonse to allergies and parasitic worms Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.16  Granulocytes  Basophils  Have histamine-containing granules  Initiate inflammation Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.17  Agranulocytes  Lymphocytes  Nucleus fills most of the cell  Play an important role in the immune response  Monocytes  Largest of the white blood cells  Function as macrophages  Important in fighting chronic infection Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.18  Platelets  Derived from ruptured multinucleate cells (megakaryocytes)  Needed for the clotting process  Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm3 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.19  Hematopoiesis  Blood cell formation  Occurs in red bone marrow  All blood cells are derived from a common stem cell (hemocytoblast)  Hemocytoblast differentiation  Lymphoid stem cell produces lymphocytes  Myeloid stem cell produces other formed elements Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.20  Fate of Erythrocytes  Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize proteins  Wear out in 100 to 120 days  When worn out, are eliminated by phagocytes in the spleen or liver  Lost cells are replaced by division of hemocytoblasts Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.21  Control of Erythrocyte Production  Rate is controlled by a hormone (erythropoietin)  Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a response to reduced oxygen levels in the blood  Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback from blood oxygen levels Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.22  Control of Erythrocyte Production Figure 10.5 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.23  Hemostasis  Stoppage of blood flow  Result of a break in a blood vessel  Hemostasis involves three phases  Platelet plug formation  Vascular spasms  Coagulation Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.24  Platelet Plug Formation  Collagen fibers are exposed by a break in a blood vessel  Platelets become “sticky” and cling to fibers  Anchored platelets release chemicals to attract more platelets  Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.25  Vascular Spasms  Anchored platelets release serotonin  Serotonin causes blood vessel muscles to spasm  Spasms narrow the blood vessel, decreasing blood loss Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.26  Coagulation  Injured tissues release thromboplastin  PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with thromboplastin, blood protein clotting factors, and calcium ions to trigger a clotting cascade  Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin (an enzyme) Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.27  Coagulation  Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into hair-like fibrin  Fibrin forms a meshwork (the basis for a clot) Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.28  Blood Clotting  Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes  The clot remains as endothelium regenerates  The clot is broken down after tissue repair Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.29  Undesirable Clotting  Thrombus  A clot in an unbroken blood vessel  Can be deadly in areas like the heart  Embolus  A thrombus that breaks away and floats freely in the bloodstream  Can later clog vessels in critical areas such as the brain Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.30  Bleeding Disorders  Thrombocytopenia  Platelet deficiency  Even normal movements can cause bleeding from small blood vessels that require platelets for clotting  Hemophilia  Hereditary bleeding disorder  Normal clotting factors are missing Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.31  Blood Groups and Transfusions  Large losses of blood have serious consequences  Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes weakness  Loss of over 30 percent causes shock, which can be fatal  Transfusions are the only way to replace blood quickly  Transfused blood must be of the same blood group Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.32  Human Blood Groups  Blood contains genetically determined proteins  A foreign protein (antigen) may be attacked by the immune system  Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that will cause blood with certain proteins to clump (agglutination) Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.33  Human Blood Groups  There are over 30 common red blood cell antigens  The most vigorous transfusion reactions are caused by ABO and Rh blood group antigens Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.34  ABO Blood Groups  Based on the presence or absence of two antigens  Type A  Type B  The lack of these antigens is called type O Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.35  ABO Blood Groups  The presence of both A and B is called type AB  The presence of either A or B is called types A and B, respectively Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.36  Rh Blood Groups  Named because of the presence or absence of one of eight Rh antigens (agglutinogen D)  Most Americans are Rh+  Problems can occur in mixing Rh+ blood into a body with Rh– blood Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.37  Rh Dangers During Pregnancy  Danger is only when the mother is Rh– and the father is Rh+, and the child inherits the Rh+ factor Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.38  Rh Dangers During Pregnancy  The mismatch of an Rh– mother carrying an Rh+ baby can cause problems for the unborn child  The first pregnancy usually proceeds without problems  The immune system is sensitized after the first pregnancy  In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immune system produces antibodies to attack the Rh+ blood (hemolytic disease of the newborn) Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.39  Blood Typing  Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and anti-B serum  Coagulation or no coagulation leads to determining blood type  Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done in the same manner  Cross matching – testing for agglutination of donor RBCs by the recipient’s serum, and vice versa Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.40  Developmental Aspects of Blood  Sites of blood cell formation  The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of blood cell formation  Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by the seventh month  Fetal hemoglobin differs from hemoglobin produced after birth Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.41