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Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of erythrocytes in the blood?
What is the primary function of erythrocytes in the blood?
Which of the following accurately describes the physical characteristics of blood?
Which of the following accurately describes the physical characteristics of blood?
Which component of blood plasma is primarily responsible for regulating osmotic pressure?
Which component of blood plasma is primarily responsible for regulating osmotic pressure?
What is the composition of blood plasma?
What is the composition of blood plasma?
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Which of these statements correctly describes the formed elements in blood?
Which of these statements correctly describes the formed elements in blood?
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Which type of protein in the blood plasma helps protect the body from antigens?
Which type of protein in the blood plasma helps protect the body from antigens?
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What anatomical feature characterizes erythrocytes?
What anatomical feature characterizes erythrocytes?
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What is the correct pH range that blood must maintain?
What is the correct pH range that blood must maintain?
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What is the primary function of hemoglobin in the blood?
What is the primary function of hemoglobin in the blood?
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What is leukocytosis and what does it generally indicate?
What is leukocytosis and what does it generally indicate?
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Which type of leukocyte is characterized by the presence of granules that can be stained?
Which type of leukocyte is characterized by the presence of granules that can be stained?
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Which granulocyte is primarily involved in the phagocytosis of pathogens at infection sites?
Which granulocyte is primarily involved in the phagocytosis of pathogens at infection sites?
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What are agranulocytes and which types fall under this category?
What are agranulocytes and which types fall under this category?
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Basophils are known for containing granules that release which substance that initiates inflammation?
Basophils are known for containing granules that release which substance that initiates inflammation?
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What is the normal range of leukocyte levels in the blood?
What is the normal range of leukocyte levels in the blood?
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What is the primary role of eosinophils in the immune response?
What is the primary role of eosinophils in the immune response?
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What effect does serotonin have during vascular spasms?
What effect does serotonin have during vascular spasms?
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Which component is pivotal for triggering the clotting cascade?
Which component is pivotal for triggering the clotting cascade?
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What is the primary role of thrombin in the coagulation process?
What is the primary role of thrombin in the coagulation process?
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What occurs after a blood clot has formed?
What occurs after a blood clot has formed?
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What condition is characterized by a deficiency in platelets?
What condition is characterized by a deficiency in platelets?
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How long does it typically take for blood to clot after an injury?
How long does it typically take for blood to clot after an injury?
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What is a thrombus?
What is a thrombus?
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What can occur if a thrombus breaks away and travels in the bloodstream?
What can occur if a thrombus breaks away and travels in the bloodstream?
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What is the primary role of lymphocytes in the body?
What is the primary role of lymphocytes in the body?
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Which of the following statements about monocytes is correct?
Which of the following statements about monocytes is correct?
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What is the normal platelet count in the human body?
What is the normal platelet count in the human body?
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What process occurs in red bone marrow related to blood cell formation?
What process occurs in red bone marrow related to blood cell formation?
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Which hormone controls the production of erythrocytes?
Which hormone controls the production of erythrocytes?
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What is the main purpose of hemostasis in the body?
What is the main purpose of hemostasis in the body?
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What happens to erythrocytes when they can no longer function?
What happens to erythrocytes when they can no longer function?
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What initially causes platelets to become sticky during hemostasis?
What initially causes platelets to become sticky during hemostasis?
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What primarily causes the most vigorous transfusion reactions in blood transfusions?
What primarily causes the most vigorous transfusion reactions in blood transfusions?
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What determines whether blood types A, B, AB, or O are present?
What determines whether blood types A, B, AB, or O are present?
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What is the risk associated with a mismatch between an Rh– mother and an Rh+ baby?
What is the risk associated with a mismatch between an Rh– mother and an Rh+ baby?
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In which scenario is hemolytic disease of the newborn most likely to occur?
In which scenario is hemolytic disease of the newborn most likely to occur?
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Which blood group is characterized by the presence of both A and B antigens?
Which blood group is characterized by the presence of both A and B antigens?
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What is the main purpose of typing blood using antibodies?
What is the main purpose of typing blood using antibodies?
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What defines an Rh+ blood type?
What defines an Rh+ blood type?
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Which statement is true regarding the Rh blood group system?
Which statement is true regarding the Rh blood group system?
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Study Notes
Introduction
- Blood is the only fluid tissue in the human body
- It is classified as a connective tissue
- Blood contains living cells (formed elements) and a non-living matrix (plasma)
Physical Characteristics of Blood
- Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red; oxygen-poor blood is dull red
- The pH of blood must remain between 7.35 and 7.45
- The temperature of blood is slightly higher than body temperature
Blood Plasma
- Blood plasma is approximately 90% water
- Includes dissolved substances such as nutrients, salts, respiratory gases, hormones, proteins, and waste products
Plasma Proteins
- Albumin helps to regulate osmotic pressure
- Clotting proteins help to stem blood loss when a blood vessel is injured
- Antibodies help protect the body from antigens
Formed Elements of Blood
- Erythrocytes (red blood cells) are responsible for carrying oxygen
- Leukocytes (white blood cells) are crucial in the body's defense against disease
- Platelets are cell fragments needed for the clotting process
Erythrocytes (Red blood Cells)
- Erythrocytes are biconcave discs
- Erythrocytes contain very little organelles and are anucleate (lack a nucleus)
- They are essentially bags of hemoglobin
- Erythrocytes outnumber white blood cells 1000:1
Hemoglobin
- Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein
- Each hemoglobin molecule can bind to four oxygen molecules
- Each erythrocyte contains 250 million hemoglobin molecules
Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
- Leukocytes are complete cells with a nucleus and organelles
- Leukocytes can move into and out of blood vessels (diapedesis)
- They can move by ameboid motion
- They respond to damaged tissue chemicals
Leukocyte Levels in Blood
- Normal leukocyte levels are between 4,000 and 11,000 cells per millimeter
- Leukocytosis is an abnormal increase over 11,000 cells/ml and may indicate an infection
- Leukopenia is an abnormally low leukocyte level, commonly caused by drugs
Types of Leukocytes: Granulocytes
- Granulocytes contain granules in their cytoplasm that can be stained
- Neutrophils have a multilobed nucleus, contain fine granules, and act as phagocytes at infection sites
- Eosinophils have large brick-red cytoplasmic granules and respond to allergies and parasitic worms
- Basophils contain histamine-containing granules and initiate inflammation
Types of Leukocytes: Agranulocytes
- Agranulocytes lack visible cytoplasmic granules
- Lymphocytes have a nucleus that fills most of the cell and play an important role in the immune response
- Monocytes are the largest white blood cells and function as macrophages - important in fighting chronic infection
Platelets
- Platelets are derived from ruptured megakaryocytes (multinucleate cells).
- Platelets are required for blood clotting
- Normal platelet count is 300,000 per mm3
Hematopoiesis
- Hematopoiesis is blood cell formation
- Occurs in red bone marrow
- All blood cells originate from a common stem cell (hemocytoblast)
- Hemocytoblasts differentiate into lymphoid stem cells (which produce lymphocytes) and myeloid stem cells (which produce other blood cells)
Fate of Erythrocytes
- Erythrocytes are unable to divide, grow or synthesize proteins
- Erythrocytes wear out in 100-120 days
- Worn-out erythrocytes are eliminated by phagocytes in the spleen or liver
- Lost cells are replaced by division of hemocytoblasts
Control of Erythrocyte Production
- Rate is controlled by erythropoietin (a hormone)
- Kidneys produce most erythropoietin, triggered by reduced oxygen levels in the blood
- Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback from blood oxygen levels
Hemostasis
- Hemostasis is the stoppage of blood flow
- Occurs after blood vessel breaks
- Hemostasis involves three phases: platelet plug formation, vascular spasms, and coagulation
Platelet Plug Formation
- Collagen fibers are exposed when blood vessels break
- Platelets become sticky and cling to fibers
- Anchored platelets release chemicals to attract more platelets
- Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug
Vascular Spasms
- Anchored platelets release serotonin
- Serotonin causes blood vessel muscles to spasm
- Spasms narrow blood vessels, decreasing blood loss
Coagulation
- Injured tissues release thromboplastin
- PF3 (phospholipid) interacts with thromboplastin, blood protein clotting factors, and calcium ions to trigger a clotting cascade
- Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin (an enzyme)
- Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins to form fibrin (hair-like protein)
- Fibrin forms a meshwork that forms the basis for a clot
Blood Clotting
- Blood usually clots within 3-6 minutes
- Blood clot remains as endothelium regenerates
- Clot is broken down after tissue repair
Undesirable Clotting
- Thrombus: a clot in an unbroken blood vessel; can be deadly in areas like the heart
- Embolus: a thrombus that breaks away and floats freely; can clog vessels in critical areas (e.g., brain)
Bleeding Disorders
- Thrombocytopenia: platelet deficiency; even normal movements can cause bleeding from small blood vessels
- Hemophilia: hereditary bleeding disorder; normal clotting factors are missing
Blood Groups and Transfusions
- Large blood loss can have serious consequences
- Losing 15-30% of blood can cause weakness
- Losing over 30% of blood can cause shock, which can be fatal
- Transfusions are the only way to replace blood quickly
- Transfused blood must be of the same blood group
Human Blood Groups
- Blood contains genetically determined proteins (antigens)
- Foreign proteins can be attacked by the immune system
- Blood is "typed" by using antibodies that cause agglutination (clumping) of blood with certain antigens
Human Blood Groups
- Over 30 common red blood cell antigens exist
- The most vigorous transfusion reactions are caused by ABO and Rh blood group antigens
ABO Blood Groups
- ABO blood groups are based on the presence or absence of two antigens: Type A and Type B
- Type O blood lacks both A and B antigens
- Type AB blood contains both A and B antigens
Rh Blood Groups
- Rh blood groups are named after one of eight Rh antigens (agglutinogen D)
- Most Americans are Rh+
- Mixing Rh+ blood with Rh- blood can cause problems
Rh Dangers During Pregnancy
- Rh- mother carrying an Rh+ baby can cause problems for the unborn child
- The first pregnancy usually proceeds without problems
- The mother's immune system is sensitized after the first pregnancy
- During a second pregnancy, mother's antibodies attack the Rh+ blood (hemolytic disease of the newborn)
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Description
This quiz covers the essential characteristics of blood, including its classification as a connective tissue and its physical properties. It also delves into the components of blood plasma, various plasma proteins, and the formed elements such as erythrocytes and leukocytes. Test your understanding of these vital concepts!
