Chapter 1: Psychological Approach to Studying Work in a Changing Environment PDF

CHAPTER 1. PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO STUDYING WORK IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT References Chmiel, N. (2008). An introduction to work and organizational psychology : an european perspective. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Chapter 18. The Changing Nature of Work. Michael Frese Arnold, J & Randal...

CHAPTER 1. PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO STUDYING WORK IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT References Chmiel, N. (2008). An introduction to work and organizational psychology : an european perspective. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Chapter 18. The Changing Nature of Work. Michael Frese Arnold, J & Randall, R. (2016). Work Psychology: Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace. Pearson. Chapter 15: The psychology of dispersed work Howes, S. S., & Muchinsky, P. M. (2022). Psychology Applied to Work. Hypergraphic Press Chapter 3: The context of work 2 Introduction Introduction One question ▪ What changes will the next 50-100 years bring about? 2 Answers Erroneous Slower changes forecasts (e.g. (e.g. computer Eastern technology) countries) 4 “ CAUSES 1. To extrapolate future from current trends (e.g. fossil energy) 2. Small causes-large effects (e.g. Hitler) 3. Countermovements (e.g. computer in office) 5  Limiting conditions for changes ▪ Human beings are conservative (e.g. new technology) ▪ Organizations are conservative (e.g. hierarchies) To understand the future of work? Software Designers Scenario Approach 6 10 Trends that describe the job of the future 1. Dissolution of the unity of work in space and time 2. Change of job and career concepts 3. Faster rate of innovation 4. Increase of complexity of work 5. Personal initiative versus adaptability to new world 6. Global competition 7. Development of larger and smaller units 8. More teamwork 9. Reduced supervision 10.Increase of cultural diversity 7 1. Dissolution of the unity of work in space and time 1. Dissolution of the unity of work in space and time Some examples Implications: Problems to telework: volunteer, privacy, control, commitment, Coordination (task, face to cooperative work face) Culture Poor language Overabundance Better phase of work More democratic communication 9 2. Change of job and career concepts 2. Change of job and career concepts Job Career Life time Reduction jobs in Private life production and services: reengineering Reduction of personnel: technological innovation Temporary work increases Employability Project work increases Commitment Entrepreneurial spirit Think of market all the time 11 3. Faster rate of innovation 3. Faster Rate of innovation Implications: ▪ Two types of innovation: people with creativity and initiative. ▪ Innovation of process vs innovation of product. ▪ Learn faster: general skills, self-regulation, self- training (learn from errors), learning organizations culture: curiosity vs. uncertainty avoidance 13 4. Increase of complexity of work 4. Increase of complexity of work More demanding intellectual work Causes Small Customer customization niches orientation Implications: 1. What can be done for unskilled workers?: the wage 2. What can be done for not socially competent people? 3. Self-esteem and self-efficacy 15 4. Job analysis of intellectual work 17  5. Personal initiative VS. adaptability to new work 18 6. Global competition 6. Global Competition Implications: 1. Ideas, attitudes and productivity 2. More imaginative companies: self-reliance, initiative, involvement 3. More turbulence in company [VUCA] 4. Cross-cultural management 5. What to do with smaller companies? [GLOCAL] 6. Reduction of the power of the labor unions 20 7. Development of larger and smaller units CONTINGENCY THEORY 8. More teamwork 8. More teamwork Team ▪ Job rotation ▪ Self-coordination: reduce supervisors ▪ Interdisciplinary work: register ▪ Social and communication VS skills: emotional intelligence ▪ Team training, team development measures, integration 23 Individual 9. Reduced supervision Who is going to transmit organizational Who is going to knowledge, control errors? culture and socialization? Who is going to facilitate changes? 25 10. Increase of cultural Prejudice and animosities diversity Two approaches: categorization and elaboration Language  3 Changes Succession in work planning. world Talented focused on employees. US Generations X (1969-1980) vs Generations Y or Millennials (born after 1980). Linley, P. A., Harrington, S., Garcea, N., & Page, N. (Eds.). (2010). Oxford handbook of positive psychology and work. Oxford University Press, USA. 28 Which Generation are you? GEN-Z GEN-Y or MILLENNIALS GEN-X 1994- 1981- 1969- 2010 1993 1980 BABY SILENT BOOMER 1949- 1930- 1968 1948 30 31 CHAPTER 2. Work socialization and the meaning of work  “ References Woods, S.A. & West, M.A. (2010). The Psychology of Work and Organizations. Cengage Learning EMEA Chapter 4. Attitudes and behaviour in organizations Arnold, J & Randall, R. (2016). Work Psychology: Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace. Pearson. Chapter 6. Attitudes at work Howes, S. S., & Muchinsky, P. M. (2022). Psychology Applied to Work. Hypergraphic Press Chapter 11. Affect, attitudes, and behavior at work 2 1. Attitudes and Behavior 3  What do you think about the Are you satisfied at work? Attitudes and managerial capability of your line supervisor? Behavior How do you feel about your organization and its mission? Attitudes People’s behaviour and performance at work 4 5 2. What is an attitude? 6  Evaluative statements or beliefs about something or What is an someone attitude? Target Positive / Negative COMPONENTS: 1. Cognitive 2. Affective 3. Behavioural What is the most important? 7 3. Linking Attitudes and Behavior 8  Have you ever had to do something that Cognitive was against your attitudes? dissonance theory DISSONANCE-DISCOMFORT (Festinger, Implications: 1957) 1. Behaviour is likely to be consistent with attitudes in order to avoid dissonance 2. Alteration of attitudes as a consequence of behaviour 9 The theory of planned behaviour (Ajzenand & Fishbein, 1977) 10 THE CASE OF THE YOUNG NEWLYWED 11 Work- related Attitudes JOB SATISFACTION a person’s general feelings about their job, the extent to which they feel positive or negative about it 12 Organizational Antecedents and effects of organizational commitment commitment The extent to which an individual feels they have a positive relationship with their organization 13  WITHDRAWAL OR COUNTERPRODUCTIVE Consequences BEHAVIOUR: of commitment absence, lateness and turnover and satisfaction Job ORGANIZATIONAL CONSEQUENCES Performance Organizations with more satisfied members... More customer Higher profit More productive satisfaction Lower turnover Fewer accidents 14  EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT Other Work the extent to which people are enthusiastic about and actively Attitudes involved with their job and organizations More customer satisfaction Higher profit how invested a person feels in their job in an organization More productive JOB INVOLVEMENT (to care more about and believe in the value of their work) Lower turnover Fewer accidents JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS 15 4. Attitude Change: Persuasion and Influence 16  ❖ Crano and Prislin(2006): Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) and Heuristic/Systematic Model (HSM) Attitude ❖ Attitude strength Change: ❖ Fear Persuasion and influence 17 5. Wider influences on behavior at work 18 Emotion and Behaviour Affective Events Theory (AET; Ashkanasy and Daus, 2002) 19 Perception and Behaviour ATTRIBUTION THEORIES: causes Personal construct of behaviour theory (Kelly, 1955) 20 Decision making 21 Is it reasonable to say that no human decision is ever really completely rational? BOUNDED RATIONALITY THEORY (Simon, 1972) Limitations: Introduction of risk and uncertainty: loss aversion Incomplete information about alternatives Complexity 22 THE SHOPPING STORY 23  SOCIAL Social FACILITATION Influences on Drive Behavior your performance is better when others are present or observing Theory the presence of others can serve to Explanations: promote behaviour as well as to inhibit 1.Evaluation apprehension (Cottrell, 1972) 2. Distraction-conflict theory (Baron, 1986) SOCIAL LOAFING 24 Personal identity: idiosyncratic traits and individual differences that give you a sense of who you are. Social identity: way in which you perceive yourself as a result of being a member of a particular social group. Depersonalization If others perceive your group negatively...? 25  CONFORMITY OBEDIENCE TO AUTHORITY Milgram experiment Asch experiment Would regular people in the Level of the distortion of general population obey authority judgement: if instructed to cause harm to 1.Distortion of perception others? 2.Distortion of response What are the implications for When was conformity reduced? organizations? Cross-cultural perspective  CHAPTER 3. Work design: jobs and roles REFERENCES Chmiel, N. (2008). An introduction to work and organizational psychology: a European perspective Chapter 1. Work Profiling and Job Analysis. Dave Bartram Arnold, J & Randall, R. (2016). Work Psychology: Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace. Pearson. Chapter 4. Personnel selection: analysing jobs, 2 competencies and selection methods. Truxillo, D. M., Bauer, T. N., & Erdogan, B. (2021). Psychology and work: An introduction to industrial and organizational psychology. Routledge Chapter 3. Job Analysis.  WHAT JOB ANALYSIS IS ▹ Collection and analysis of any type of job- related information by any method for any purpose (Ash, 1988) What is important OUTPUTS about a job 3 Job description: nature of work Person specifications: nature a)Work-oriented job descriptions of people b)Worker-oriented job descriptions KSAOs WHY JOB ANALYSIS IS DONE To understand what behaviors are required to do a job effectively Job analysis is needed for (purposes): 4 ❖ Recruitment and selection ❖ Training and development ❖ Performance management ❖ Merger, acquisitions and downsizing ❖ Job design and redesign ❖ Health and safety requirements ❖ Human resource planning and effective use of available resources ❖ Job evaluation and compensation ❖ Legal defensibility ❖ Classification of jobs and labeling of jobs Job Classification systems ▹ International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) developed by the International Labor Organization (ILO) in Geneva http:www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/stat/class/isco.htm 5 ▹ Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) developed by US Employment Service 1939, 550 occupational groups The O*NET (Occupational Information Network):http:\\online.onetcenter.org 900 occupational groups Job analysis methods Depend on what type of work-related information they are trying to collect 6 Work- or worker-oriented???  “ Quotations are commonly printed as a means of inspiration and to invoke philosophical thoughts from the reader. 7  Job incumbents: Sources of Points of caution: Job Time information Objective Unfamiliar 8 More valid Supervisors and professional job analysts (O*NET) TOOLS OF JOB INFORMATION NATURE OF JOB OPINION OF PEOPLE Job incumbents or Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) 9 ▹ Documentation ▹ Questionnaires ▹ Observation ▹ Structured interview ▹ Diaries Future oriented interview Direct Data collection methods ▹ Time-and-motion (T&M) ▹ Cognitive task analysis (CTA): “think aloud” ▹ Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA) 10 Housekeeper  For a TASK ORIENTED DATA specific job, rely COLLECTION METHODS on SMEs TASK INVENTORY ANALYSIS (TIA) FUNCTIONAL JOB ANALYSIS (FJA): from DOT Clerk in a Pharmacy Answer customer questions about Task statements: 11 products and services ▹ Why and how it is done Call patient about scrip not picked ▹ What is accomplished up after 7 days ▹ Level of involvement Make refunds Recommend products to customers Ring up merchandise and prescriptions on register 12 WORKER ORIENTED DATA COLLECTION METHODS Repertory Grid Analysis Job Elements Method (JEM) (RGA) Behaviors that are significant Qualities needed for success in to job success the job (8-12 and ideal people) 13 Ability Requirements Scale Position Analysis Questionnaire (ARS) (PAQ) 195 items 6 sections: 1) information input, 2) mental 37 abilities (not personality, processes, 3) information output, 4) values, interests or motivation) relationships with other persons, 5) relationships with job context, 6) relationships with other job characteristics Importance for the job, complexit y, frequency 14  WORKER ORIENTED DATA COLLECTION METHODS Threshold Trait Analysis (TTA) Personality-related Position 33 personal qualities that are important for Requirements Form (PPRF) performing a job effectively hypotheses about the importance of various Mental, physical, learned, motivational and personality attributes for job performance social (leadership, negotia tion, achievement, 15 extraversion) Ability or “can do” factors Attitude or “will do” factors — Work Profiling System (WPS) Similar PAQ COMBINATION  FROM A JOB ANALYSIS TO WORK PROFILING Worker-oriented approaches: 16 General Changing nature descriptions of Work profiling of work human behavior Prone to biases and distortions STRATEGIC JOB MODELING (SJM) ntegrates work, people and organizational context I PEOPLE SIDE WORK SIDE 17 Available capabilities requirements COMPETENCIES COMPETENCY Set of behaviors that are instrumental in the delivery of desired results (Bartram, 18 2002) Universal Competency Framework (UCF): 112 GREAT EIGHT COMPETENCIES Want big impact? USE BIG IMAGE. 19 6 PILOT’S COMPETENCIES 20  6 PILOT’S COMPETENCIES Attitude development Stress management Crew 21 coordination Flight deck Risk management assessment Psychomotor skills London Metropolitan University & KLM Flight Academy The coal company CHAPTER 4. Work motivation and job satisfaction Chmiel, N. (2008). An introduction to work and organizational psychology: a European perspective. Malden, MA: Blackwell “ Chapter 2. Work Motivation. Arnold, J & Randall, R. (2016). Work Psychology: Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace. Pearson. Chapter 7. Approaches to work motivation and work design. Howes, S. S., & Muchinsky, P. M. (2022). Psychology Applied to Work. Hypergraphic Press Chapter 13. Work Motivation 2 1. Introduction  What is motivation? Content-Related What is work motivation? Theories of Work motivation Abilities, training and motivation 1. Why do some individuals show high motivation in their job while others do not? 4 Content-Related Theories of work Motivation 5  Individual Needs Genetic Base McClelland (1961) Maslow’s 1. Need for achievement Pyramid 2. Need for affiliation 3. Need for power Thematic Apperception Test, Murray (1938) 6  Maslow’s Problems: -Self-actualization -Hierarchical order -Logical and clinical insights 7 Questionnaire for the appraisal of needs 9 Job satisfaction and job performance 10  Characteristics of the work environment Herzberg's two-factor theory (1966) Job enlargement/enrichment Money makes the world go around, the world go around... 11  Job Characteristics Model (JCM). Hackman and Oldham (1976) Long term JDS Effects 12 Interaction between person and task characteristics FLOW THEORY (Csikszentmihalyi, 1982) Subjective experience of optimal motivation state that occurs when persons are completely engaged in what they are doing NEW RESEARCH ANTECEDENTS: CONSEQUENCES: DIRECTIONS: Clear set of goals and Positive affect Trained rules Intense concentration Theoretical vagueness Perceived task demands Lack of fatigue Subjective experience and individual skills match Clear and immediate performance feedback 13 Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Flow, the secret to happiness 14 Some principles of motivational work design Natural Vertical work units loading Opening Feedback channels Relationships Combining with tasks customers 15  2) How is high motivation transformed into effective work behavior? PROCESS-RELATED THEORIES OF WORK MOTIVATION 17 Expectancy model (Vroom, 1964) Choosing between action options Force=E (I x V) LIMITATIONS: Multiplicative combination Rational and deliberate processes Intrinsic motivation Individual differences Maintenance of action over time 18 Goal-Setting Theory (Locke & Latham, 1990) Focusing on action goals Planning, activation and strength CHALLENGES: Personal differences Changes over time Clear and non-conflicting goals with sufficient and reliable feedback routines 19 Self-Regulation Theories (Bandura, 1991) Execution and behavior control Basic steps: self-monitoring, self- evaluation and self-reaction Self-Regulation & Self-Efficacy 20  Justice Theories Evaluation of action results is JUST Equity Theory (Adams, 1965): Distributional justice /Procedural justice Psychological contract Job performance Organizational citizenship or contextual behavior: Job help, loyalty and commitment Satisfaction Identification with organization Absenteeism Turnover 21 Recent research directions GROUP 23 Process-Related Theories of work Motivation COLLECTIVE EFFORT MODEL (CEM) INSTRUMENTALITY: 1.Contingency between individual performance and group performance 2.Contingency between group performance and group outcome 3.Contingency between group outcome and individual outcome VIST MODEL GOAL-SETTING THEORY 24  AGE Content related changes: Process-related changes: ◂ Challenging ◂ Feedback Adaptation incentive ◂ Salary Habits Comparison with ◂ Safety and security younger ones ◂ Climate Stereotypes ◂ Job satisfaction increases with age. Why? Self-efficacy 25 Maria Schmidt’s famous news paper column, published in June 1, 1997 in Chicago Tribune journal which Bazz Luhrmann transformed into a video. Its title was “Advice, like youth, probably just wasted on young” but it was known as “Wear Sunscreen, “Usa protector solar”, and it was about how to take advantage of life and youth. Chapter 5. Teamwork  References ▰ Woods, S.A. & West, M.A. (2010). The Psychology of Work and Organizations. Cengage Learning EMEA. Chapter 13. Teams and teamwork ▰ Arnold, J & Randall, R. (2016). Work Psychology: Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace. Pearson. Chapter 11. Groups, teams and teamwork ▰ Howes, S. S., & Muchinsky, P. M. (2022). Psychology Applied to Work. Chapter 10. Teams and teamwork 2 What is a team?  DEFINITION 1. “ Team is a relatively small group of people working on a clearly defined, challenging task that is most efficiently completed by a group working together rather than by individuals working alone or in parallel; who have clear, shared, challenging, team-level objectives derived directly from the task; who have to work closely and interdependently to achieve these objectives; whose members work in distinct roles within the team (although some roles may be duplicated); and who have the necessary authority, autonomy and resources to enable them to meet the team’s objectives. 5 Woods and West, 2010  Summary Size 2-15 Autonomy Dependence and control Shared Objectives Organizational Responsibility identity and accountability 6  DEFINITION 2. “ Teams are composed of two or more individuals who exist to perform organizationally relevant tasks, share one or more common goals, interact socially, exhibit task interdependencies, maintain and manage boundaries and are embedded in an organizational context that sets boundaries, constrains the team, and influences exchanges with other units in the broader entity. 7 Kozlowski and Bell, 2003  Which Definition Is Focused On Group-level Features And Which On The Organizational-level Perspective? 8 3 coordination mechanisms Shared Closed loop mental communication Mutual trust models 9  5 core components of teamwork Leadership Adaptability Mutual performance monitoring Backup behavior Team orientation (workload) (pressure or stress) 10  Types of team in organizations CATEGORIES: DIMENSIONS: ▰ Strategy and policy teams ▰ Degree of permanence ▰ Production teams ▰ Emphasis on skill/competence development ▰ Service teams ▰ Genuine autonomy and influence ▰ Project and development teams ▰ Level of task from routine to strategic ▰ Action and performing teams 11 What do teams do? Answer: Tasks are better performed by teams rather than by individuals  Dimensions Completeness Varied demands Developmental possibilities for Task the task significance Autonomy Opportunities Requirements for for learning interdependence 13 Why work in teams?  Cohen and Bailey, 1997 ▰ Teams are the best way to enact organizational strategy ▰ Teams enable organizations to speedily develop and deliver products and services ▰ Teams enable organizations to learn (and retain learning) more effectively ▰ Cross functional teams promote improved quality management ▰ Cross-functional design teams can undertake radical change ▰ Creativity and innovation are promoted within team. 15  Benefits for.. ORGANIZATIONS ▰ Efficient processes ▰ Flexible response to change EMPLOYEES ▰ Improved effectiveness Job satisfaction ▰ Reduced costs Empowerment ▰ Increased innovation Commitment ▰ Effective partnering with other organizations Citizenship ▰ Customer involvement Task involvement and ▰ Employee commitment and well-being belongingness ▰ More comprehensive utilization of the skills of employees 16 Godard, 2001 West and Markiewicz, 2004 Why should this be so?  What makes an effective team? 18 19  Ability and Personality ▰ —People with high ability (intelligence) predict performance in teams OCEAN ▰ —The “Big Five” model of personality: teams composed of conscientious people with high levels of extraversion are likely to be most effective. 20 Belbin’s Team Roles Model 21  Generic teamwork skills Active listening Teamwork skills Communication skills Social perceptiveness Self-monitoring Altruism Warmth and cooperation Patience and tolerance 22 23 24  Organizational supports —limate for team-based working: C Supportive and challenging Risk taking and idea generation - Vertical linkeage Organizational structure - Horizontal linkeage Appraisal and performance — - Trust review systems: - Communication Team outcomes Organizational culture - Involvement and participation Team member growth and - Support for training and well-being teamworking Inter-team relations Team goal setting 25 ❖ Reward Systems Team innovation 26  Influencing decision- making ▰ Ignoring new information ▰ Social conformity ▰ Air time ▰ Status and hierarchy ▰ Group polarization ▰ Groupthink ▰ Social loafing ▰ Brainstorming 27  is the team’s practice of examining their Task focus team performance critically. Constructive controversy Error management The team can respond to an error by Cooperative context seeking who to blame or by asking ELEMENTS: what we can learn from this ▰ Elaborating positions ▰ Searching for understanding ▰ Integrating perspectives 28  Make team members uncomfortable, anxious Team conflicts and angry How do we resolve conflicts in teams?: ▰ Avoid ▰ Accommodate ▰ Compete ▰ Compromise ▰ Collaborate: integrative and creative solution 29  Creativity and innovation Stages: ▰ Exploration Problem ▰ Ideation solving ▰ Selection ▰ Implementation 30  What went well, what was problematic, what can Reflexivity we learn from this, what do we need to change next time? STAGES: 1. Reflection 2. Planning: detail, inclusiveness of potential problems, ordering of plans and time scale 3. Action: magnitude, novelty, radicalness and effectiveness 31 32 Chapter 6. Stress and health at work  References Chmiel, N. (2008). An introduction to work and organizational psychology: a European perspective Chapter 6. Job Stress and Occupational Health Arnold, J & Randall, R. (2016). Work Psychology: Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace Chapter 10. Work-related stress and well-being. Truxillo, D. M., Bauer, T. N., & Erdogan, B. (2021). Psychology and work: An introduction to industrial and organizational psychology. Routledge Chapter 12. Stress and Occupational Health Psychology 2  1. Job stress as a social problem 3 ▷ The changing nature of work ▷ Mental and emotional demands ▷ High prevalence of job stress ▷ Physical and psychological disorders ▷ Huge expenditures ▷ Legislation 4  2. What is job stress? 5 Tension or strain ▷ Little agreement ▷ Large number of disciplines ▷ Several theoretical models of job stress 6  Meanings of job stress as a... Stimulus “ Response Mediational process 7 Job stress as a stimulus Job demands Job resources (lack) ▷ Workload ▷ Job autonomy ▷ Emotional labor ▷ Job variety ▷ Physical exertion ▷ Workplace social ▷ Others... support Components: cognitive, emotional and physical 8 Job stress as a response...to some kind of threat Problems Not to cope Longer periods Chronic 5 stress reactions at 3 levels of expression: 9 10  Job stress as a mediational process Cognitive, evaluative and motivational processes Which is the best? Focus of coping: Method of coping: Problem-oriented Overt-covert Emotion-oriented Control-Escape 11 12  The other side of the coin: good stress and work engagement Endorphin Positive, fulfilling, work- related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication and absorption Burnout 13 Individual differences and job stress 1. Genetic characteristics: gender, constitution, physique 2. Acquired characteristics: education, social class, skills 3. Dispositional characteristics: coping styles, preferences, type A/B behavior 14  3. Theoretical models of job stress 15 l VITAMIN MODEL (Warr, 1987) l DEMAND-CONTROL-SUPPORT MODEL (Johnson & Hall, 1988) l EFFORT-REWARD IMBALANCE MODEL (Siegrist, 1996) l JOB DEMANDS-RESOURCES MODEL (Demerouti, 2001) l DEMAND-INDUCED STRAIN COMPENSATION MODEL (Jonge & Dormann, 2003) 16  Initial stress models: Michigan Model and Vitamin model P-E Fit Model Analogy 1. Availability of money 2. Physical security Framework 3. Valued social position 4. Opportunity for control 1. Interaction people-situation 5. Opportunity for skill use 2. Nine job characteristics 6. Externally generated goals 3. Affective well-being 7. Variety 8. Environmental clarity 9. Opportunity for interpersonal contact MODERATORS: A. Values B. Abilities C. Baseline mental health 17 18 19 JAWS 20 Demand-control-support model Demand-control model (Karaseck, 1979) 21 Demand-control-support model 22  Problems ▷ Conceptualization of dimensions ▷ Combination not stronger responses ▷ Subjective measurement ▷ Individual differences 23  Effort-reward imbalance model COMMENTS: 1. Need for approval ▷ Intrinsic/extrinsic rewards 2. Competitiveness and hostility ▷ Stable overcommitment ▷ Status inconsistency 3. Impatience and irritability ▷ Work-home conflict 4. Work obligations ▷ Longitudinal studies of dimensions 24 l JOB DEMANDS-RESOURCES MODEL (Demerouti, 2001) l DEMAND-INDUCED STRAIN COMPENSATION MODEL (Jonge & Dormann, 2003) 25 Job demands-resources model Empirical, occupational settings 26 Demand-induced strain compensation model DC and ERI Models KEY PRINCIPLES: 1. Multidimensionality 2. TMP 3. Compensation principle 4. Imbalance 27  4. Interventions to prevent or reduce stress 28 29 Progressive Muscle relaxation (Jacobson) 30