Chapter 1: Introduction to Science, Technology, and Society

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY Science, Technology and Society Defined Some may think that science is very easy to define and might say that it is just it is. But philosophers are said to be in argument about the definition of science for decades already because it has...

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY Science, Technology and Society Defined Some may think that science is very easy to define and might say that it is just it is. But philosophers are said to be in argument about the definition of science for decades already because it has a wide coverage of human dealings. Let\'s revisit some common definitions of science to gain a better understanding. 1. Science is the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world following a systematic methodology based on evidence. 2. Science is the description, understanding, and prediction of phenomena through the use and generation of verifiable theories, laws, and principles. 3. Science is the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment. Based on the definitions above, science is both a **body of knowledge and a process**. It collects facts but at the same time allows the process of discovery linking isolated facts into a cohesive and comprehensive understanding of the natural world. According to McGinn (1991) Science has four meanings: 1. *As a knowledge*: the organized, well-founded body of knowledge of natural phenomena. 2. *As a field of systematic inquiry into nature*: the particular field or domain or systematic inquiry in which such knowledge is sought. 3. *As a form of human cultural activity*: a distinct form of human activity in which such knowledge is sought. 4. *As a total societal enterprise*: the summation of knowledge, people, skills, organization, facilities techniques, physical resources, methods and technology, which is devoted to the study and understanding of the natural world. UnderstandingScience.org prepared a checklist that summarizes the key characteristics of science. - Focuses on the Natural World - Science is exclusively concerned with the natural world and its components, including the physical universe and the natural forces that influence them. Subsequently, supernatural forces and explanations are beyond the scope of scientific inquiry. \"What is the purpose of life?\" Is there a soul? The answers to these queries are not attainable through scientific methods, as they would necessitate solutions that are not rooted in the natural world. - Aims to explain the natural world - Science seeks to generate more precise natural explanations of the functioning of the world. Nevertheless, as a result of the ever- changing nature of scientific and research endeavors across several fields, the objective now expressly include problem-solving and technological advancement. Pure science encompasses the study of how the universe operates, while applied science utilizes existing scientific knowledge to devise practical solutions for real-world issues. Understanding the process of cell division falls under the realm of pure science, but creating a medication to hinder cell division in particular cell types, such as breast cancer cells, exemplifies applied science. - Uses testable ideas - Science is limited to testable ideas. To be testable, a concept must logically produce particular expectations: a set of observations that we could anticipate making if the assumption were true, as well as a set of observations that would contradict the notion and lead you to assume it is false. For instance, the environment nurturing a bird won\'t alter its genetically encoded song. To demonstrate the validity of this scientific concept, we would expect a sparrow raised in a different species\' nest to grow up to sing a sparrow song like any other member of its own species. However, if the sparrow acquired its song as a chick, rearing a sparrow in another species\' nest should result in the sparrow singing a non-sparrow song. These notions are testable because they produce a variety of expected observations. - Relies on evidence - In the realm of science, concepts that lack empirical evidence are ultimately discarded. In the end, scientific concepts must not only be capable of being tested, but must actually undergo testing, preferably through multiple lines of evidence and by numerous individuals. This attribute is fundamental to all scientific endeavors. Even if the experiments are risky, such as measuring carbon dioxide levels in ice cores in Antarctica, collecting samples of volcanic emissions across continents, or using dangerous chemicals in laboratories, they must be conducted. In science, the acceptance or rejection of a scientific idea is based on the evidence pertaining to it, rather than on dogma, popular opinion, or tradition. - Involves the scientific community - The progress of science depends on interactions within the scientific community. A community of people and organizations that generate scientific ideas, test those ideas, publish scientific journals, organize conferences, train scientists, distribute research funds, etc. An example of this is The Genographic Project is collaboration between National Geographic and IBM and the Waitt Foundation. It aims to collect DNA samples from indigenous populations across the world, analyze them to map their ancestry, and therefore understand human migration patterns. The project allows individuals from different countries to send in a DNA sample, and in return, gain insights into their lineage. Over 140 countries are currently participating in this research, taking the meaning of global collaboration to an entirely new level. - Leads to ongoing research - As our knowledge increases, our awareness of our lack of understanding also grows. Science is an ongoing process of improving and broadening our understanding of the universe. As this process unfolds, it gives rise to new inquiries that will be explored in the future. The field of science is perpetually ongoing and will never reach a state of completion. The atom was extensively examined centuries ago, and to this day, a plethora of new knowledge has been accumulated through experiments, leading to the advancement of the scientific understanding of it. As long as there remain uncharted and inexplicable aspects of the natural world, science will persist in exploring them. - Benefits from scientific behavior - Science is accessible to individuals of all ages, genders, ethnicities, physical abilities, nationalities, and political affiliations. Today, scientific research are no longer limited to experts in a single discipline, but have expanded to include multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary efforts. Furthermore, it is crucial to cultivate a scientific mindset that includes traits such as inquisitiveness, integrity in documenting and verifying evidence, adaptability, perseverance, open-mindedness, readiness to embrace ambiguity, and recognition of the temporary character of scientific explanations. While becoming a scientist may not be your ultimate goal, developing these traits can greatly benefit you in any field of study you choose to pursue. Limitations of Science Science has made significant contributions to the progress of humanity. The utilization of smartphones has facilitated global communication with loved ones, aided in the mitigation of the pandemic through vaccination efforts, facilitated the construction of impressive structures, safeguarded crops from pests, and contributed to the preservation of endangered plant and animal species through the implementation of innovative technology, among several other benefits. Nevertheless, science does have distinct boundaries. 1. Science does not make moral judgments. Science helps us describe how the world is, but it does not make any judgments about whether that state of affairs is right, wrong, good, or bad. 2. Science does not make aesthetic judgments. Scientific methods cannot prove the correctness or incorrectness of aesthetic judgments, nor can they directly measure beauty or other aesthetic qualities. 3. Science does not tell you how to use scientific knowledge. Despite the deep concern scientists often have for the application of their discoveries, science itself does not dictate the appropriate use of scientific knowledge. We must decide how to use this knowledge, as it can have both positive and negative applications. 4. Science does not draw conclusions about supernatural explanations. Science cannot study questions that deal with supernatural explanations because they are, by definition, beyond the realm of nature. Questions relating to personal faith and spirituality are important, yet science won't help you answer them. Topics like aesthetics, morality, and theology are actively studied by philosophers, historians, and other scholars. However, questions that arise within these domains generally cannot be resolved by science, although they can be informed by science. **Technology** is the use of scientific knowledge and/or empirical knowhow for the production, improvement, and distribution of goods and services, as well as the satisfaction of other material needs. On the other hand, it is more related to economic activity. The actual use of technology in the production process points out the potentials as well as the problems associated with a particular technology. In short, it is the application of understanding of natural laws to the solution of practical problems. In the book The Nature of Technology: What it is and how it evolves, W. Brian Arthur (2009) defined technology in three ways: 1. Technology is a "means to fulfill a human purpose" in that a method or any material may be utilized to serve a human purpose. 2. Technology is an assemblage of practices and components. 3. Technology is a collection of devices and engineering practices available to culture. The book review by Tonn (2010) presented that Arthur's conceptual framework has three main components. One, new technologies typically if not almost always results from the combination of other existing technologies. Two, existing technologies consist of smaller technologies. Three, all technologies make use of one or more natural phenomena or effects. Consider the modern automobile. It is constructed from many technologies---engine, transmission, heating and cooling, electronics, etc. Each of these technologies is composed of smaller technologies. The technologies make use of many natural phenomena, from the combustion properties of gasoline and oxygen to the optical properties of glass to the effect of friction between the wheels and the road. The world is being swiftly transformed by these developing technologies. The manner in which we experience its impacts may vary from other nations as a result of disparities in economic standing and national progress. Nevertheless, it is important to acknowledge that the influence of certain technological advancements from the list has begun to gradually appear. It is imperative for us, as global citizens, to stay well-informed about these technological breakthroughs as they will undoubtedly impact our lives, either currently or in the immediate future. A society is a collection of individuals who have come together for a shared objective or interest. They attend in order to acquire knowledge and exhibit the behaviors that are anticipated of them. Sociologists categorize societies into three general categories: Pre- Industrial Society: Primary economic activity is the production of food, which is accomplished through the utilization of both human and animal labor. The hunter-gatherers, pastoral, horticultural, and agricultural groups were present in the pre-industrial society. Industrialized societies: The industrial revolution\'s enhanced production efficacy resulted in an even greater surplus than previously. The surplus now encompassed not only agricultural products but also manufactured goods. Post-industrial societies are characterized by a greater emphasis on information, services, and advanced technology than on the production of goods. **The interplay between Science, Technology, and Society** The interconnection between these three phenomena is a thought- provoking inquiry, however the solution is not easily discernible. The difficulty in addressing the question stems from the fact that all three entities have bidirectional links, meaning that each one has the ability to impact the others. Therefore, there are a total of six distinct relationships. Science and Technology Science provides the knowledge and understanding that drives technological progress. We utilize principles from physics, material science, electricity, chemistry, and other related fields to advance the development of innovative technologies. Currently, we are actively engaged in developing numerous materials that have the potential to be beneficial. These materials are based on our existing scientific theories and their projected existence. As scientific theory continues to progress, it will increasingly contribute to our technological breakthroughs. However, technology also alters the manner in which we conduct scientific research. Consider the creation of the telescope. It significantly enhanced our capacity to carry out astronomical study. Space telescopes, such as Voyager, the Cassini probe, and the Huygens lander, have achieved even greater accomplishments. In more recent times, technological progress has enabled the creation of a virtual telescope with the dimensions of the Earth. This breakthrough has facilitated the actual capture of images of a black hole, or more precisely, the matter surrounding it. Technology and Society The impact of technology on society is evident and significant in various aspects. Social media, the internet in its whole, blockchain technology, and other similar factors have exerted substantial impacts on society. Undoubtedly, previous technical upheavals such as the industrial revolution and the agricultural revolution must also be acknowledged. The growth of technological breakthroughs has enabled us to manufacture materials that are integral to our daily lives and has also facilitated the ability to sustainably feed a large population. Technology has significantly contributed to economic development; nevertheless, it has also brought about certain adverse consequences. Undoubtedly, the most severe application of technology, and the scientific knowledge that underpins its advancement, has been in the creation of weapons capable of causing widespread destruction. On the other hand, society both influences and occasionally forbids the advancement of technology. Through necessity, society also propels technological advancement. A technology almost always develops as a result of someone realizing the need for it. Science and Society Similar to how technology frequently advances due to necessity, science aids in addressing societal issues. Even if expanding our understanding is one of science\'s main objectives, many people use science to assist in finding solutions to social issues that face the actual world. For example, the desire for a deeper comprehension of epidemics motivates our study of the subject. Additionally, science deepens our comprehension of society. Sociology, anthropology, economics, political science, and other fields all contribute to our understanding of how societies operate. In addition, society can impact the development of our theories, just like it can with technology. It takes little imagination to drive the creation of hypotheses that, if true, would permit time travel or travel faster than the speed of light. Because science modifies our perception of reality, it has a profound effect on our norms, values, and belief systems in addition to our day-to-day actions. For example, germ theory has altered our food safety procedures, hygiene practices, and sanitation habits. We have developed the vital habit of washing our hands because we now know how infections spread. This is just one example of the numerous ways that scientific theory and data have altered human behavior. The science of knowing how the world works changes our behavior. Technology changes our ability to act. Scientific research and technological advancements are driven by society. Science provides us with knowledge about the kinds of technologies we might develop and how to do so, while technology enables us to carry out additional scientific research. It can occasionally be challenging to separate the three realms because of how closely they are related. However, since each determines the future of the others, it is crucial to comprehend how the three relate to one another. **The STS Approach** In response to the growing importance of S&T in the contemporary society and the increasing recognition of that importance, the last two decades have witnessed the birth and growth of a new academic field: Science, Technology, and Society (STS). STS does not refer to the kinds of preparatory studies or advanced work in various technical fields pursued by aspiring or practicing scientists and engineers. Rather, it refers to the study about science and technology. More precisely, STS refers to the study of science and technology in society- that is, the study of the ways in which technical and social phenomena interact and influence each other. It is an interdisciplinary field of study that seeks to explore and understand the many ways that modern science and technology shape modern culture, values, and institutions, and how modern values shape science and technology. STS examines how science and technology emerge, how they enter society, how they change through social processes, and how society changes in response to science and technology. STS also encompasses the internal study of science and technology. Internal refers to studies of phenomena such as the general nature and interrelationship of science and technology, the social structures and reward systems of the professions of science and engineering, and social aspects of everyday scientific and technological activity. Besides their increasing social importance and the growing recognition of that importance, the phenomena of science and technology in society are studied by scholars because they are interesting and complex sociocultural phenomena. STS as an approach means starting with students, their questions, using resources available to work for their resolution, and wherever possible, advancing to the stage of taking actual actions individually and in groups to resolve actual issues. It equips students to understand where science and technology come from, how they changed over time, how they are embedded in society, and how they in turn affect society. STS approach is expected to increase general interest and understanding of science. It is also expected to fill a critical void in the traditional curriculum. Harms and Yager (1993) further derive four main purposes of the STS approach, namely: 1. Preparing students to use science for improving their own lives and as a corollary to be able to better understand and cope with an increasingly technological society. 2. Enabling students as they progress through life to deal with STS issues in a responsible manner. 3. Identifying a body of knowledge that would enable them to deal with STS issues. 4. Acquiring knowledge and understanding about career opportunities in the field. Enabling the students plan for their careers by comprehending the possible job opportunities available in their job market. As you advance in studying the subsequent chapters of STS, it is expected that you will develop a deeper understanding of the world and recognize the valuable contributions of science and technology to your role as a student, a future productive worker, and a global citizen.