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CHAPTER ONE: PERSPECTIVES ON EARLY CHILDHOOD After completing Chapter One students will be able to Identify areas in which children’s lives can be improved Describe historical views of child development Define biological, cognitive and social and emotional processes...

CHAPTER ONE: PERSPECTIVES ON EARLY CHILDHOOD After completing Chapter One students will be able to Identify areas in which children’s lives can be improved Describe historical views of child development Define biological, cognitive and social and emotional processes Outline the periods of development Explain cross-cultural beliefs about child development Describe how child development is studied Define developmentally appropriate practice Two-and-a-half-year-old Santiago sits at a small table, arms stretched out, hands limp. His teacher places a small chunk of banana with the skin on it in front of him. Santiago looks up at the teachers, smiles, and then picks up the banana in his fist. Using his right hand, index finger, and thumb, he slowly peels the banana, and then with a flat hand, shoves the whole piece into his mouth. As six-year-old Chloe paints, she looks at the postcard she is copying, being very careful to use the same colors in her painting as on the postcard. As she paints, she says to Johanna, “I’m using gold first because that’s my favorite, then the green”. Johanna passes the red paint and laughs, “Red’s last!” Chloe laughs, takes the pot of red paint, and begins to stir it vigorously. Three-month-old Zuri has a full head of darkest brown hair and thin, almost non-existent eyebrows. She has big brown eyes, full round cheeks, small ears, and a small nose. She has olive skin and a bald spot on the back of her head. Zuri does not yet have any teeth and seems to drool continuously. Her body is not proportional yet—her torso is full and round; she has tiny feet and long fingers. Zuri is twenty-two inches in length and weighs thirteen pounds. What do all of these children have in common? They are all developing “normally.” But what does that mean, and how can we be sure? The field of developmental psychology has sought to explore exactly those questions. Developmental Psychology is the study of how and why humans change throughout their lifespan. By studying sequences of typical development, we are able to make determinations about what might be considered expected and healthy, and what may be a red flag of atypical development or development that may be heading off track. In other words, it is only once we understand what typical, healthy development looks like that we are able to recognize atypical or unhealthy development, and then can intervene. Chapter One: Perspectives on Early Childhood | 5 6 | Chapter One: Perspectives on Early Childhood Childhood Defined Periods of Development As children move from infancy to young adulthood, they go through key periods of development. Ages and Stages is a term used to describe these periods of development. Although what defines these periods of childhood has varied widely throughout history and across cultures, The American Academy of Pediatrics defines these periods as follows: Prenatal Period which begins with conception and ends with birth Infancy which is marked by the months from birth through fifteen months Toddlerhood which encompasses sixteen months through a child’s third birthday Early Childhood, spanning three to five years of age Middle Childhood, which spans the ages of five to twelve Adolescence, which includes the ages of twelve to eighteen Each age and stage is characterized by its own set of expected characteristics and changes. As we seek to provide the best possible care and education for children, these distinct time periods provide a helpful framework in which to study childhood (Bee & Boyd, 2009; Berk, 2017; Childhood defined, n.d.). Domains of Development Within these five time periods, we are then able to study primary areas in which change occurs, referred to as the domains of development. We will examine child development across four major domains: Physical/ Biological, Cognitive (including intelligence), Social (relationships and self-awareness), and Emotional (encompassing internal states such as temperament, emotional regulation, and understanding the emotions of others). Growth vs. Development In talking about child development, it’s important to keep in mind that growth and development do not refer to the same processes, although they are often used interchangeably. Development refers to overall changes that occur that result in improved functioning or achievement (for example, cognitive development, social development). Growth refers specifically to physical or biological changes that occur. Growth can be directly observed and measured. In this chapter, we will explore Childhood Defined | 7  definitions of childhood the areas of development that developmental psychologists study the historical and cultural contexts we need to understand when studying development the difference between growth and development various themes which emerge when studying child development how child development is studied 8 | Childhood Defined Historical Perspectives History of Childhood Throughout Ancient Times, the Middle Ages, and most of Early Modern History, the idea of childhood as we understand it today didn’t exist. In part because of the hardships of life in general, and in part because of very high infant and child mortality rates (primarily due to malnutrition, disease, and general lack of access to medical care), the way families viewed childhood was fundamentally different from the way it is viewed now. Before the 16th century, the focus of families was on survival. A child’s value was in their ability to contribute toward that goal. It wasn’t until the late 1500’s that the idea of a need for education of the common man emerged. Until this point, it was primarily only those who intended to enter the clergy or become government officials or physicians who received any kind of formal education. As societies developed and progressed, they began to recognize the value of developing a skilled workforce. As a result, families began to need support in providing an education for their children, and the first of what could be recognized as modern schools were established. It had been widely believed that until modern times, children were primarily treated with indifference, dealt with harshly, and regarded as miniature adults. This argument, which was famously made by French historian Philippe Ariès (1914–1984) in his 1960 book titled, Centuries of Childhood, has since been disputed. Ariès came to this conclusion after studying historical writings about childhood (or lack thereof) and paintings depicting children through the Middle Ages. However, it is now understood that the depiction of children in pre-18th century art as miniature adults was not at all due to any lack of regard or affection parents had for their children. According to Alastair Sooke, in his article for the BBC, “How Childhood Came to Fascinate Artists”, Ariès’ thinking was flawed for two key reasons: Painting by Lavinia Fontana depicting Bianca degli Utili Maselli, holding a dog and surrounded by six of her children (c. 1565–1614). Historical Perspectives | 9 Pictures of children were surprisingly rare during the late Middle Ages and even into the 16th Century. In those days, the infant Jesus was the principal image of childhood in art. For another, when artists finally started to paint children with greater frequency during the 17th Century, they did so in a way that seems unnatural to modern eyes, by presenting them as miniature adults. (Sooke, 2016) Painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder called Children’s Games (c. 1560). He goes on to explain that paintings of the children of nobility (because they were the only ones who could afford to have their portraits painted) served a different purpose than snapping a photo of a child today; it was not meant to capture a moment in time. Rather, children were often dressed and posed as adults in an effort to depict their parents’ hopes for the person they would become. For royalty, these portraits became important advertisements to potential suitors. It was, in reality, a very early form of the personal profile. Our current notions of childhood are primarily rooted in the works of 17th-century English philosopher John Locke and of 18th-century Swiss philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau. Locke (1632-1714) is probably most famous for his notion of children coming into the world as a tabula rasa, a Latin term translated as “blank slate”. He believed that infants were neither inherently good nor inherently evil (as was commonly believed at the time—a reference to the church’s teachings of original sin) but rather were neutral or “blank”. A child’s nature and personality would develop over childhood, during which time he believed a child was particularly impressionable and sensitive to new experiences. Because he believed that children were born with no set predeterminations and since the child’s mind was so malleable, an adult could mold him or her with careful diligence. Many of his ideas about education endure today, most notably: Each person develops according to his or her unique experiences, and thus the need for individualized education Learning should be enjoyable, with many opportunities for play 10 | Historical Perspectives  Educators should focus on teaching critical thinking skills Children learn best through sensory experiences Rousseau’s (1712-1778) philosophy of education emphasizes the development of a child’s character and moral sense. The goal was for the child to learn to remain principled and honorable, even in the unnatural and imperfect society in which the child would have to live. He also believed that children should learn through exploration and experiences carefully led by adults. This philosophy was predicated upon the idea that children were born inherently good, not inherently wild or evil (or even neutral, as Locke believed). This was all very radical thinking for the time. Some of Rousseau’s ideas that continue to influence education today are: Teaching should be flexible and responsive Children learn best from hands-on experiences Children’s thinking is different from adults’ Children go through distinct phases of development Locke and Rousseau helped to pave the way for what we consider our modern ideas about education. Many other early educational pioneers used Locke’s and Rousseau’s groundbreaking work as the foundation for even more progressive ideas about childhood and education. Examples include: Integrated curriculum and the need for educating the whole child (the belief that all aspects of human growth and development are interrelated)—Johann Pestalozzi Expansion of education to infants and toddlers—Robert Owen Play as the most important construct for learning, and the importance of creating play experiences that reflect the natural world in which children live. These ideas became the foundations for kindergarten— Freidrich Froebel Child-centered education and intentional teaching—John Dewey (Sooke, 2016) Emerging Themes Nature and Nurture As we reflect on these ideas about childhood throughout Western history, we see that distinct themes of development begin to emerge. Probably the most well-known is the theme of nature vs. nurture. This refers to the debate within developmental psychology concerned with examining whether certain characteristics and aspects of behavior are primarily the result of biological programming and inheritance (nature) or whether they are learned and the product of experience (nurture). Proponents of the nature view of development believe that humans develop based on a predetermined genetic plan that we inherit from our parents. Examples of this thinking can be seen, perhaps most famously, in the work of Charles Darwin and his theories of evolution, but also in later theorists such as Arnold Gesell (Bee & Boyd, 2009; Berk, 2017; Childhood defined, n.d.). Proponents of the nurture view of development believe that humans develop based on the influences and experiences we collect over our lifetime, regardless of genetic makeup. Some of the most enduring theories of the nurture view of development stem from the works of John Watson, B.F. Skinner and Albert Bandura, whom we’ll explore in chapter two. Historical Perspectives | 11 As you will see throughout this text, it is the interplay among all these factors that ultimately results in who we become. As Dr. David Rettew explains in his post “Nature Versus Nurture: Where We Are in 2017” for Psychology Today: Today, most scientists who carefully examine the ever-expanding research base have come to appreciate that the nature and nurture domains are hopelessly interwoven with one another. Genes have an influence on the environments we experience. At the same time, a person’s environment and experience can directly change the level at which certain genes are expressed (a rapidly evolving area of research called epigenetics), which in turn alters both the physical structure and activity of the brain. (Rettew, 2017) Embedded in the debate over nature and nurture are notions of stability and change— that is, ideas about how changeable and/or prone to influence, development and behavior are—as well as notions of universal vs. individual development. These debates seek to answer questions such as: Can patterns of behavior change? Can certain genetic and/or environmental influences be overcome? What accounts for individual differences in development? Why does human development seem to follow certain universal, predictable patterns? Continuous and Discontinuous Development Another debated controversy in the field of human development is the idea of continuous vs. discontinuous sequences of development. Continuous development refers to the idea that development occurs as the result of a continual maturation process—a steady unfolding of changes throughout the lifetime. This type of development can be thought of as similar to that of a tree. The organism (in this case, a tree) gradually develops and changes over time, but maintains the same primary characteristics and functions as it did before—just larger and more complex. Discontinuous development refers to the idea that development occurs in distinct stages, each stage being fundamentally different from the preceding or following stages. This type of development is similar to that of a butterfly. At each stage of a butterfly’s life (egg, caterpillar, chrysalis, adult), the butterfly is very different from any other stage, and yet it is still a butterfly (Bee & Boyd, 2009; Berk, 2017; Childhood defined, n.d.). In Chapter Two, we will explore more deeply how theories of development can fall into these categories of being either continuous or discontinuous. 12 | Historical Perspectives Risk and Resilience A more contemporary debate that has arisen around educating and caring for children has to do with how we view risk and resilience. Conventional wisdom dictated that it was in children’s best interests to try to limit (as much as possible) their exposure to any form of adversity or loss. While most agree that it is, in fact, in children’s best interests to protect them from any kind of trauma, tragedy, threat, or significant stress, in recent decades, it seems that the pendulum has swung too far in the direction of insulating children from any and all forms of stress and loss. However, it is through this stress and loss that children learn to cope with future stress and loss, thus becoming resilient. Rather than using the everyone-gets-a-trophy strategy of rewarding children, we have come to understand that genuine and authentic praise serves children much better. It’s important to keep in mind that resilience is not a trait that people either have or do not have. It involves behaviors, thoughts, and actions that can be learned and developed. When children experience adversity—whether it be the loss of a parent or not making the team—helping them to frame the experience as one they can survive helps them for the next encounter. It becomes a positive feedback loop; adversity helps children to learn resilience, which then helps children to be more resilient in the face of future adversity. The key is in helping them learn effective coping strategies and supporting them through the resilience process. The American Psychological Association provides more information in their publication, “Resilience Guide for Teachers and Parents”, which can be found on their website (APA, 2012). Historical Perspectives | 13 Media Attributions Bianca degli Utili Maselli, holding a dog (c. 1565–1614) © Lavinia Fontana, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons is licensed under a Public Domain license Children’s Games (c. 1560) © Pieter Brueghel the Elder, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons is licensed under a Public Domain license Nature vs Nurture diagram © Deirdre Budzyna via. ROTEL is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license Discontinuous development © Wikimedia and Public Domain images. net is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license Risk and Resilience © Deirdre Budzyna via. ROTEL is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license 14 | Historical Perspectives Cultural Perspectives It’s valuable to take into consideration that these themes are based upon what is commonly referred to as “WEIRD” societies, that is societies which are Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic. American society certainly falls within this description, but by no means do all societies. Childhood actually has different meanings around the world. Depending on various cultures’ shared patterns of behaviors, interactions and understandings, we see different constructs of childhood emerge. The following articles: “Different Cultures, Different Childhoods” (Montgomery, 2013) from The Open University, and “A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Childhood” (2018) from Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) provide some eye-opening examples of these differences in beliefs about childhood. Despite these differences, in 1989 the United Nations General Assembly adopted the first human rights treaty which articulates basic universal civil, political, economic, social, health and cultural rights of children, known as the Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC). According to the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the Convention: Defined childhood as a separate space from adulthood and recognized that what is appropriate for an adult may not be suitable for a child. Called on governments to provide material assistance and support to families and to prevent children from being separated from their parents. Recognized that children are the holders of their own rights and are therefore not passive recipients of charity but empowered actors in their own development. As a direct result of the policies that were able to be put in place in the years since the Convention was adopted, the world has seen significant improvement in the quality of life for children. Almost unbelievably, as of the writing of this text, the United States is the only member of the United Nations that has not ratified the treaty. It is believed that this is the case because of very powerful lobbying by special interest groups. Cultural Perspectives | 15 16 | Cultural Perspectives Media Attributions UN Convention Rights of the Child © UNICEF is licensed under a Public Domain license Cultural Perspectives | 17 Developmentally Appropriate Practice How do these previously discussed perspectives shape the way we raise and educate children? In 1989, The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) set out to answer just this question. NAEYC published its first position statement related to Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP), and while many other advocacy agencies have also sought to define developmentally appropriate practice, NAEYC’s position is considered the gold standard and most widely accepted. NAEYC has since updated its position in order to remain current with and responsive to new research developments. According to NAEYC, Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP) is a framework designed to promote young children’s optimal learning and development. To make decisions that reflect best practices, educators take into consideration what they know about: child development and learning each child as an individual each child’s social and cultural context These three guiding principles are used in all high-quality early childhood programs and are reflected throughout this text (NAEYC, 2022). 18 | Developmentally Appropriate Practice How is Child Development Studied? Researchers use three primary methods in studying development in order to draw their conclusions: longitudinal studies cross-sectional studies case studies Longitudinal Studies refer to studies in which a large group of children is studied over time in order to look at specific changes that occur. Longitudinal studies may examine a single aspect of development or multiple aspects at once. Data is collected at two or more different time intervals, but typically the study looks at development multiple times over the course of several months or even over an entire lifetime. While some of the most valuable data about development has been gained through the use of longitudinal studies, because these studies are so comprehensive and lengthy, they tend to be very expensive to carry out and can take decades to be able to draw any concrete conclusions. Ultimately, longitudinal studies aim to draw conclusions that can be generalized over a population. Cross-Sectional Studies refer to studies in which comparisons are made in the abilities and behaviors of two or more groups of children, each group being of a different age; for example, comparing the language skills of two-year-olds to the language skills of five-year-olds in order to come to some conclusion about the changes that occur between the ages of two and five. An advantage of this type of study is that it is typically less costly to carry out because the studies can be held over a very short timeframe—researchers don’t have to wait for children to get older. A drawback to these studies is that researchers are comparing more apples to oranges, rather than apples to apples. Case studies refer to investigations in which a single child or small group of children are studied. Case studies are far more in-depth and detailed than longitudinal studies, include the related contextual conditions in which development is observed, and draw upon data from multiple sources. Because case studies apply only to a single or very small group of individuals, the results typically cannot be generalized to a larger population (Berk, 2017; Crain, 2011). When looking at data from various types of studies, it’s essential to understand the difference between a correlation and a causation. Notable market analyst, Ben Yaskovitz, describes the difference as, “Correlation helps you predict the future, because it gives you an indication of what’s going to happen. Causality lets you change the future.” (Yaskovitz, 2013) Correlation describes the relationship among two or more variables that appear to be related to one another, but one does not necessarily cause the other to occur. For example, there is a correlation between ice cream consumption and drowning (Yaskovitz, 2013). It seems that ice cream consumption rises and falls with the rate of drownings. However, there is nothing about eating ice cream that causes people to drown. In this case, it seems that there is another factor involved—weather. In certain climates and during certain seasons, people tend to consume more ice cream. More people in those climates and during those seasons tend also to be engaged in water -related activities, and the more people involved in water-related activities, the more drownings that tend to occur. The two factors are related but one does not cause the other to happen. A more famous mistaken correlation was that between unpleasant odors and disease. Until the late 19th century, before people fully understood microbiology and disease processes, it was believed that bad odors actually caused disease—unpleasant-smelling air appeared to make people sick, so the two occurrences were correlated. Of course, we now understand that it’s not the odor that makes people sick, but rather the factors leading to the odor that do. (ex. It’s not the smell of spoiled milk that will make you sick, but the bacteria in the milk that produces the smell that will.) How is Child Development Studied? | 19  Causation describes a relationship among two or more variables in which one occurs as the direct result of another. One thing causes another. For example, the way that gravity causes things to fall toward the ground. Even in the field of child development, there have been many examples of occurrences in which a correlational relationship was mistaken for a causational one; it’s critical to recognize the difference between the two when drawing conclusions about children’s development and behavior (Santrock, 2013). Did you know… A little stress can actually be good for you? Studies show that with a little bit of stress, people actually have improved performance on various tasks. We seem to work better when we are under just the right amount of pressure to succeed. A little stress helps to keep us focused and motivated, but too much can tip the scales and we can find ourselves fatigued, anxious, or even burnt out. Keep this in mind as you progress throughout this course and also as you work with children—it’s healthy to strive for success and to be slightly out of your comfort zone. The graph below helps to illustrate this phenomenon. Media Attributions Stress Performance Curve © Doris Buckley via. the ROTEL Project is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike) license 20 | How is Child Development Studied?