ch8.ppt

CHAPTER 8 – ASSESSMENT: SELF-REPORT AND PROJECTIVE MEASURES COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. CENTRAL CONCEPTS IN SELF-REPORT AND PROJECTIVES Personality traits: Consistent behaviors, attitudes and emotions across time Objective personality tests: Tests that are...

CHAPTER 8 – ASSESSMENT: SELF-REPORT AND PROJECTIVE MEASURES COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. CENTRAL CONCEPTS IN SELF-REPORT AND PROJECTIVES Personality traits: Consistent behaviors, attitudes and emotions across time Objective personality tests: Tests that are scored the same way each time and not as open to interpretation Projective personality test: Test taker responds to ambiguous stimuli and assessor determines some interpretation of the data Clinical utility: Do the tests add important and useful information COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. THE PERSON-SITUATION DEBATE Walter Mischel: 1968 book Personality and Assessment launched debate In 1968, Walter Mischel challenged the assumption that personality determined behavior, and instead claimed that people's behavior from situation to situation was variable and depended on the situational circumstances. In other words, the "situation" view is that behavior depends on the situation itself, whereas the personality view is that behavior depends on long-held characteristic personality styles and is consistently displayed no matter the situation. Mischel reviewed the research literature and concluded that the correlation between personality and behavior was.20 to.40 - overall.30, which is small. This was used to argue that since there was only a small correlation between personality and behavior, then the role of personality was not all that important and the variability of behavior must be due to the situational demands (and to error). COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  THE PERSON-SITUATION DEBATE The dispositional approach to personality, by definition, tries to identify those psychological characteristics which remain relatively stable for a person over time and across situations. This may have blinded personality theorists and researchers to the role that changing situational circumstances plays. The question provoked by the situation vs. person debate is to what extent to which behavior can be predicted by personality vs. the extent to which behavior arises from the dynamics of the situation and to what extent from the inherent characteristics of the person themselves. The person–situation debate in personality psychology refers to the controversy concerning whether the person or the situation is more influential in determining a person's behavior. Personality trait psychologists believe that people have consistent personalities that guide their behaviors across situations. Situationists, opponents of the trait approach, argue that people are not consistent enough from situation to situation to be characterized by broad personality traits. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  THE PERSON-SITUATION DEBATE Are behaviors consistent over time?  Research evidence points to influence of both person and situation. The person vs. situation debate has been hotly contested topic since the late 1960's. Perhaps not suprisingly, the answer is that behavior is best understood and both situation and person. Thus, as with the nature versus nurture debate, we may be better off studying the interaction more closely, to better understand the phenomena of human behavior and experience.  Traits and Situations interact to influence behavior - how else could it be?. Its like the genetics vs. environment issue, one cannot exist without the other). So, the trait and situationist perspectives are too simplistic: reality is more complex. In reality, different situations affect different people in different ways. Some situations allow expression of personality, other situations provoke a narrower range of behavior. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  THE PERSON-SITUATION DEBATE  Behavior = personality x interpretation of the situation It is vital to appreciate that there are individual differences in the personality-situation relationship. High self-monitors display less consistency across situations in their behavior because they try to adapt more to the situation. Low self-monitors display more consistency in their behavior across situations because they less to adapt to situations. Self-monitoring is a theory that deals with the phenomena of expressive controls. Human beings generally differ in substantial ways in their abilities and desires to engage in expressive controls. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  THE PERSON-SITUATION DEBATE  People concerned with their expressive self-presentation (see impression management) tend to closely monitor their audience in order to ensure appropriate or desired public appearances. Self-monitorers try to understand how individuals and groups will perceive their actions. Some personality types commonly act spontaneously and others are more apt to purposely control and consciously adjust their behavior. Self-monitoring is defined as a personality trait that refers to an ability to regulate behavior to accommodate social situations. People who closely monitor themselves are categorized as high self- monitors and often behave in a manner that is highly responsive to social cues and their situational context.  High self-monitors can be thought of as social pragmatists who project images in an attempt to impress others and receive positive feedback COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  SELF-PRESENTATION BIASES Emphasizing the positive: People are often motivated to present themselves in a favorable light (e.g., custody cases, job applications) Malingering: Trying to look worse than one is. Malingering is the purposeful production of falsely or grossly exaggerated complaints with the goal of receiving a reward. Random responding :is a response set where individuals respond with little pattern or thought (Cronbach, 1950). This behavior, which completely negates the usefulness of responses, adds substantial error variance to analyses Validity scales: Portions of personality tests that are designed to catch these biases COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. VALIDITY SCALE A validity scale, in psychological testing, is a scale used in an attempt to measure reliability of responses, for example with the goal of detecting defensiveness, malingering, or careless or random responding. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. SELF-PRESENTATION BIASES Projective tests may get around the self- presentation bias issue because the stimuli are ambiguous  Research evidence is mixed on whether this is the case  Projective tests that do not have standard grading scales tend to lack both validity and reliability. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. CULTURALLY APPROPRIATE MEASURES The test user must ascertain that the test and the test items do not systematically discriminate against one cultural group or another. Test bias may occur when the contents of the test are more familiar to one group than to another or when the tests have differential predictive validity across groups (Fouad, 1994). Culture plays a significant role in cross-cultural assessment. Whenever tests developed in one culture are used with another culture there is the potential for misinterpretation and stagnation unless cultural issues are considered. Issues of test adaptation, test equivalence and test bias must be considered in order to fully utilize the benefit of cross-cultural assessment. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. CULTURALLY APPROPRIATE MEASURES Tests can be biased in several ways  May not be relevant to all cultural groups  How tests are related may not be equal across groups  Cut-off scores may be different for different groups  Different factors may exist for different groups COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. CULTURALLY APPROPRIATE MEASURES Clinicians should only use measures that are validated with the ethnic group it is being used with (or results interpreted with caution) Cross-cultural adaptations of tests are often needed COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. CULTURALLY APPROPRIATE MEASURES Assessing cultural and linguistic factors:  Immigration History  Contact with Other Cultural Groups  Acculturative Status  Acculturative Stress  Socioeconomic Status  Language COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. CULTURALLY APPROPRIATE MEASURES Acculturation explains the process of cultural change and psychological change that results following meeting between cultures. The effects of acculturation can be seen at multiple levels in both interacting cultures. At the group level, acculturation often results in changes to culture, customs, and social institutions. Noticeable group level effects of acculturation often include changes in food, clothing, and language. At the individual level, differences in the way individuals acculturate have been shown to be associated not just with changes in daily behavior, but with numerous measures of psychological and physical well-being Custom:gelenek, görenek COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. CULTURALLY APPROPRIATE MEASURES Acculturative stress is the psychological impact of adaptation to a new culture People who experience acculturative stress often consider it tough and confusing to adjust in the new environment with a wide range of strange things such as language, climate, customs, and food. The stress comes from many differences in norms, values, social customs, politics and education standards between the original culture and host culture. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY MMPI-2 (for adults) and MMPI-A for adolescents: Most commonly taught and used personality inventory in clinical psych 1st version was published in 1943 – 550 items; Used empirical criterion keying: items were chosen that discriminated groups 2nd version has 567 and adolescent version 478 items; used Content approach to test construction: developing items that designed to tap a construct (not by how groups responded) COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  SOME MMPI-2 VALIDITY SCALES Cannot Say (?): Total number of unanswered items Lie Scale (L): A measure of self-presentation that is unrealistically positive Infrequency Scale (F): A measure of self-presentation that is very unfavorable – malingering or severe psychopathology Defensiveness Scale (K): Unwillingness to disclose personal information and problems. High K scale scores increase some other scores COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. VALIDITY SCALE Validity Scales of the MMPI-2 The L Scale: Also referred to as the "lie scale," this validity scale was developed to detect attempts by patients to present themselves in a favorable light. People who score high on this scale deliberately try to present themselves in the most positive way possible, rejecting shortcomings or unfavorable characteristics. Well-educated people from higher social classes tend to score lower on the L scale. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. VALIDITY SCALE The F Scale: This scale is used to detect attempts at "faking good" or "faking bad." Essentially, people who score high on this test are trying to appear better or worse than they really are. This scale asks questions designed to determine if test-takers are contradicting themselves in their responsesValidity Scales of the MMPI-2 The K Scale: Sometimes referred to as the “defensiveness scale,” this scale is a more effective and less obvious way of detecting attempts to present oneself in the best possible way. Research has demonstrated, however, that those of a higher educational level and socioeconomic status tend to score higher on the K Scale. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. VALIDITY SCALE The ? Scale: Also known as the “cannot say” scale, this validity scale is the number of items left unanswered. The MMPI manual recommends that any test with 30 or more unanswered questions be declared invalid. TRIN Scale: The True Response Inconsistency Scale was developed to detect patients who respond inconsistently. This section consists of 23 paired questions that are opposite COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. VALIDITY SCALE VRIN Scale: The Variable Response Inconsistency Scale is another method developed to detect inconsistent responses. The Fb Scale: This scale is composed of 40 items that less than 10% of normal respondents support. High scores on this scale sometimes indicate that the respondent stopped paying attention and began answering questions randomly. http://psychology.about.com/od/psychologicaltesting/a/mmpi_3.htm COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MMPI-2 CLINICAL SCALES Scale 1 (Hs: Hypochondriasis): Preoccupation with health issues Scale 2 (D: Depression): Common symptoms of depression Scale 3 (Hy: Hysteria): Physical symptoms when stressed and minimization of interpersonal problems Scale 4 (Pd: Psychopathic Deviate): Rebellious attitudes, conflict with authorities and family, and antisocial activities Scale 5 (Mf: Masculinity-Femininity): Measures gender-stereotyped interests and activities COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  MMPI-2 CLINICAL SCALES Scale 6 (Pa: Paranoia): Feelings of being mistreated, and delusions of persecution Scale 7 (Pt: Psychasthenia): Tendency to worry, rumination, fearing loss of control Scale 8 (Sc: Schizophrenia): Tendency to experience social alienation, experience delusions, hallucinations Scale 9 (Ma: Hypomania): Tendency toward hyperarousal, excessive energy, agitation Scale 0 (Si: Social Introversion): Introversion, not enjoying social contexts COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  MMPI-2 NORMS, RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY Norms: Developed with a large random sample selected from a diverse group in terms of ethnicity, SES, geography  Not a large sample of low educated or low-income individuals in norm group Reliability: Good to mediocre depending on the scale; test-retest validity is very good (>.8) Validity: Enormous amount of data – interpretation is complicated with many clinical and content scales COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MILLON MEASURES: MCMI-III AND THE MACI Focused on DSM diagnostic categories, but otherwise similar in design to the MMPI The Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory - Fourth Edition (MCMI-IV) is the most recent edition of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory. The MCMI is a psychological assessment tool intended to provide information on personality traits and psychopathology, including specific psychiatric disorders outlined in the DSM-5. It is intended for adults (18 and over) with at least a 5th grade reading level who are currently seeking mental health services. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS MILLON MEASURES: MCMI-III AND THE MACI  The test is modeled on four categories of scales:  15 Personality Pattern Scales  10 Clinical Syndrome Scales  5 Validity Scales: 3 Modifying Indices (which determine the patient's response style and can detect random responding); 2 Random Response Indicators  45 Grossman Personality Facet Scales (based on Seth Grossman's theories of personality and psychopathology  MCMI-III 175 item (true false) COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS MILLON MEASURES: MCMI-III AND THE MACI The MACI inventory (Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory), like other Millon inventories, is distinguished from other clinical instruments primarily by its brevity, its theoretical anchoring, multiaxial format, tripartite construction and validation schema, use of base rate scores, and interpretive depth. The MACI inventory supplements the Millon Adolescent Personality Inventory (MAPI)in that it was developed specifically for use in clinical, residential, and correctional settings. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS MILLON MEASURES: MCMI-III AND THE MACI It is useful primarily in the evaluation of troubled adolescents, and may be used for diagnostic assistance, in formulating treatment plans, and as an outcome measure. MACI (for adolescents) also 175 T/F items Norms under-represent people of color, in other ways are a good representation of the population Good reliability including test-retest reliability and internal consistency Some possible over-pathologizing may exist COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS  THE MACI MACI Personality Scale (DSM Equivalent) 1 Introversive (Schizoid) 2A Inhibited (Avoidant) 2B Doleful (Depressive) 3 Submissive (Dependent) 4 Dramatizing (Histrionic) 5 Egotistic (Narcissistic) 6A Unruly (Antisocial) 6B Forceful (Sadistic) 7 Conforming (Compulsive) 8A Oppositional (Negativistic or Passive- Aggressive) 8B Self-Demeaning (Masochistic or Self-Defeating) 9 Borderline Tendency (Borderline) COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. THE MACI Expressed Concerns Identity Confusion Self-Devaluation Body Disapproval Sexual Discomfort Peer Insecurity Social Insensitivity Family Discord Childhood Abuse COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. THE MACI Clinical Syndromes Eating Dysfunctions Substance-Abuse Proneness Delinquent Predisposition Impulsive Propensity Anxious Feelings Depressive Affect Suicidal Tendency Modifying Indices Disclosure Desirability Debasement Reliability COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MEASURES OF NORMAL PERSONALITY FUNCTIONING Note: used with the general population so no validity scales California Psychological Inventory (CPI): The California Psychological Inventory (CPI) is a self-report inventory created by Harrison G. Gough and currently published by Consulting Psychologists Press. The test was first published in 1956, and the most recent revision was published in 1987. It was created in a similar manner to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)—with which it shares 194 items. But unlike the MMPI, which focuses on maladjustment or clinical diagnosis, the CPI was created to assess the everyday "folk-concepts" that ordinary people use to describe the behavior of the people around them. 434 items similar in structure to the MMPI (shares many similar items); good normative, reliability and validity data. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MEASURES OF NORMAL PERSONALITY FUNCTIONING NEO-PI-Revised: The Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) is a personality inventory, published in 1990 and keyed the Big Five personality traits. It is a revised version of Costa and McCrae’s (1978) NEO Personality Inventory. The NEO PI-R consists of 240 items. A shortened version, the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO- FFI), comprises 60 items (12 items per domain). Both the NEO PI-R and NEO-FFI have been updated over the years, with their last updates in 2010. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MEASURES OF NORMAL PERSONALITY FUNCTIONING NEO-PI-Revised: While the NEO PI-R is still published, the NEO Personality Inventory-3 (NEO PI-3) is the 2010 revision of the NEO PI- R. The NEO Five-Factor Inventory-3 (NEO-FFI-3) is the 2010 revision of the NEO-FFI. The revised inventories feature updated norms Factor analytically derived inventory defines 5 factors: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism (acronym: ocean). Very good normative, reliability and validity data COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MEASURES OF NORMAL PERSONALITY FUNCTIONING NEO-PI-Revised: Factor analytically derived inventory defines 5 factors: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism (acronym: ocean). Very good normative, reliability and validity data COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  SELF-REPORT CHECKLISTS OF BEHAVIORS AND SYMPTOMS Achenbach (Child Behavior Checklist CBCL): The Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA) offers a comprehensive approach to assessing adaptive and maladaptive functioning. Developed through decades of research and practical experience to identify actual patterns of functioning Parents report a series of problems in their children (versions for teachers, caregivers) Sets the standard for integrated multi-informant assessment Offers culturally diverse worldwide applications; translations in 100 languages COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  SELF-REPORT CHECKLISTS OF BEHAVIORS AND SYMPTOMS Achenbach (Child Behavior Checklist CBCL): Provides multi-informant assessment for ages 1½-90+ Provides multicultural scoring for ages 1½-59 Is widely used in mental health services, schools, medical settings, child and family services, HMOs, public health agencies, child guidance, and training programs Offers comparable scales across wide age ranges Is used in national surveys to track development and predict competencies and problems Is supported by extensive research on service needs and outcomes, diagnosis, prevalence of problems, medical conditions, treatment efficacy, genetic and environmental effects, and epidemiology http://www.aseba.org/forms/BPM%20Cross%20Iinformant%20Sample.pdf COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  SELF-REPORT CHECKLISTS OF BEHAVIORS AND SYMPTOMS Symptom Checklist 90-revised (SCL-90-R): The Symptom Checklist-90-R (SCL-90-R) is a relatively brief self- report psychometric instrument (questionnaire) published by the Clinical Assessment division of the Pearson Assessment & Information group. It is designed to evaluate a broad range of psychological problems and symptoms of psychopathology. It is also used in measuring the progress and outcome of psychiatric and psychological treatments or for research purposes. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  SELF-REPORT CHECKLISTS OF BEHAVIORS AND SYMPTOMS Symptom Checklist 90-revised (SCL-90-R): Most widely used symptom measure in clinical settings. 90 items – 9 subscales; good reliability, but norms are not adequate and high intercorrelation among items. the SCL-90-R is normed on individuals 13 years and older. It consists of 90 items and takes 12–15 minutes to administer, yielding nine scores along primary symptom dimensions and three scores among global distress indices. The primary symptom dimensions that are assessed are somatization, obsessive-compulsive, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation, psychoticism, and a category of "additional items" which helps clinicians assess other aspect of the clients symptoms (e.g. item 19, "poor appetite"). COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  SELF-REPORT CHECKLISTS OF BEHAVIORS AND SYMPTOMS Symptom Checklist 90-revised (SCL-90-R): The three indices are global wellness index, hardiness, and symptom free. A high number of studies have been conducted demonstrating the reliability, validity, and utility of the instrument. It is one of the most widely used measures of psychological distress in clinical practice and research. http://www.turkpdr.com/modules/test/SCL_90_R.htm http://www.feyzullahalpman.com/testler/scl-90/ COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  SELF-REPORT CHECKLISTS OF BEHAVIORS AND SYMPTOMS Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II): The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI, BDI-1A, BDI-II), created by Aaron T. Beck, is a 21-question multiple-choice self-report inventory, one of the most widely used psychometric tests for measuring the severity of depression. Its development marked a shift among mental health professionals, who had until then, viewed depression from a psychodynamic perspective, instead of it being rooted in the patient's own thoughts. http://www.bilted.com/kizilay/test/beck-depresyon-olcegi COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  SELF-REPORT CHECKLISTS OF BEHAVIORS AND SYMPTOMS Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II): In its current version, the BDI-II is designed for individuals aged 13 and over, and is composed of items relating to symptoms of depression such as hopelessness and irritability, cognitions such as guilt or feelings of being punished, as well as physical symptoms such as fatigue, weight loss, and lack of interest in sex 21 item multiple choice on severity of depressive symptoms; scores may decrease w/ repeated administration http://www.depresyon.info.tr/beck_depresyon.asp COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. PROJECTIVE MEASURES Stimuli are ambiguous with respect to content and meaning Based on psychoanalytic idea that people project their negative attributes about themselves onto ambiguous external stimuli However, recent evidence indicates that the responses are about the person’s experiences and personality, not projection per se Many of these tests lack rigor of testing guidelines COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  RORSCHACH INKBLOT TEST Developed by Hermann Rorschach – The Rorschach technique, or simply the inkblot test) is a psychological test in which subjects' perceptions of inkblots are recorded and then analyzed using psychological interpretation, complex algorithms, or both. Some psychologists use this test to examine a person's personality characteristics and emotional functioning. It has been employed to detect underlying thought disorder, especially in cases where patients are reluctant to describe their thinking processes openly. The test is named after its creator, Swiss psychologist Hermann Rorschach. 10 cards; symmetrical inkblots; people report on what they see in the inkblots COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  RORSCHACH INKBLOT TEST John Exner’s Comprehensive Scoring System: Main way to score the inkblots based on a very large normative sample of responses; although people of color not adequately sampled Although the Exner Scoring System (developed since the 1960s) claims to have addressed and often refuted many criticisms of the original testing system with an extensive body of research, some researchers continue to raise questions. The areas of dispute include the objectivity of testers, inter-rater reliability, the verifiability and general validity of the test, bias of the test's pathology scales towards greater numbers of responses, the limited number of psychological conditions which it accurately diagnoses, the inability to replicate the test's norms Recent norms have better representation – although test is not recommended currently for youth (because of over- pathologizing) Good reliability; mixed data on validity COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.  THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST (TAT) Developed by Murray, 1943; 31 cards with pictures on them; Participant tells a story about what they see in the picture No consistently used scoring mechanism, although the stories are supposed to yield data on needs, emotions, interpersonal relations, and conflicts within the individual No clear norms or reliability data, making the TAT an test that is not recommended since its validity cannot be determined COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST (TAT) The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a projective psychological test. Proponents of the technique assert that subjects' responses, in the narratives they make up about ambiguous pictures of people, reveal their underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world. Historically, the test has been among the most widely researched, taught, and used of such techniques COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST (TAT) The TAT is usually administered to individuals in a quiet room free from interruptions or distractions. The subject sits at the edge of a table or desk next to the examiner. The examiner shows the subject a series of story cards taken from the full set of 31 TAT cards. The usual number of cards shown to the subject is between 10 and 14, although Murray recommended the use of 20 cards, administered in two separate one-hour sessions with the subject. The original 31 cards were divided into three categories, for use with men only, with women only, or for use with subjects of either sex. Recent practice has moved away from the use of separate sets of cards for men and women. THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST (TAT) The subject is then instructed to tell a story about the picture on each card, with specific instructions to include a description of the event in the picture, the developments that led up to the event, the thoughts and feelings of the people in the picture, and the outcome of the story. The examiner keeps the cards in a pile face down in front of him or her, gives them to the subject one at a time, and asks the subject to place each card face down as its story is completed. Administration of the TAT usually takes about an hour. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. THEMATIC APPERCEPTIN TEST (TAT) Murray's original practice was to take notes by hand on the subject's responses, including his or her nonverbal behaviors. Research has indicated, however, that a great deal of significant material is lost when notes are recorded in this way. As a result, some examiners now use a tape recorder to record subjects' answers. Another option involves asking the subject to write down his or her answers. http://www.minddisorders.com/Py-Z/Thematic-Apperception-Test.html COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST (TAT) In interpreting responses to the TAT, examiners typically focus their attention on one of three areas: the content of the stories that the subject tells; the feeling or tone of the stories; or the subject's behaviors apart from responses. These behaviors may include verbal remarks (for example, comments about feeling stressed by the situation or not being a good storyteller) as well as nonverbal actions or signs (blushing, stammering, fidgeting in the chair, difficulties making eye contact with the examiner, etc.) The story content usually reveals the subject's attitudes, fantasies, wishes, inner conflicts, and view of the outside world. The story structure typically reflects the subject's feelings, assumptions about the world, and an underlying attitude of optimism or pessimism. COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST (TAT) The results of the TAT must be interpreted in the context of the subject's personal history, age, sex, level of education, occupation, racial or ethnic identification, first language, and other characteristics that may be important. "Normal" results are difficult to define in a complex multicultural society like the contemporary United States. http://www.minddisorders.com/Py-Z/Thematic-Apperception-Test.html COPYRIGHT © 2014 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.