Intelligence: Nature, Theories & Factors PDF

**[The Nature of Intelligence]** There is considerable disagreement about the nature of intelligence, including how intelligence should best be defined. British psychologist **Charles Spearman's** theory had a factor he called **general intelligence**, or the **g factor**, this factor represented...

**[The Nature of Intelligence]** There is considerable disagreement about the nature of intelligence, including how intelligence should best be defined. British psychologist **Charles Spearman's** theory had a factor he called **general intelligence**, or the **g factor**, this factor represented a person's overall performance on tests of mental ability. Although existing research does not match with the claim that we have different mental abilities that operate independently and cannot be measured by a single score, there are two theorists that believe otherwise.    1. **Howard Gardner**, a contemporary American psychologist, contends that there are "multiple intelligences" -- eight independent intelligences- with each being defined and valued within the context of a particular culture. 2. **Robert Sternberg** agrees with Gardner that intelligence is a much broader quality than is reflected in the narrow range of mental abilities measured by a conventional IQ test.  His **triarchic theory of intelligence** emphasizes both the universal aspects of intelligent behavior and the importance of adapting to a particular social and cultural environment. Sternberg proposed a different idea of intelligence, which he called **successful intelligence**, which involves three distinct types of mental abilities: *analytic*, *creative*, and *practical*. The models that are currently receiving the most support are those that combine the idea of intelligence as a general trait with the idea of multiple intelligences.  Two of these are the **Carroll Three-Stratum and Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC**) models.  They are both similar in that they break intelligence down into three layers (strata).  The 1st layer is the broadest layer that represents general intelligence, or g.  The 2nd layer, which is the broad abilities like reading and writing, cognitive  processing speed, and quantitative knowledge.  **[Extremes of Intelligence]** **Intellectual disability** is a neurodevelopmental disorder in which deficits in mental abilities impair functioning such that standards of personal independence are not met. There are many levels of impairment with a diverse set of impact on the individual.  Anyone who has an IQ below 70 is considered to be intellectually disabled, and may have difficulties in (a) conceptual skills, (b) social skills, and (c)practical skills. Individuals considered **intellectually gifted** have an IQ over 130 and have exceptional abilities in areas related to intelligence. **Leta Hollingworth** came up with the term *gifted*. She emphasized education and the environment\'s impact on giftedness, not just genetics.   \*Remember though, giftedness does not guarantee future life success. You need to have motivation, commitment, and challenging opportunities to overcome!  **[The Roles of Genetics and Environment in Determining Intelligence]** Virtually all psychologists agree that both heredity and environment are important in determining intelligence... However, the relative quantities of each continue to be debated. - Environmental factors influence *which* genes are switched on, or activated. - Individuals inherit a potential *range* for a trait, and environmental factors determine how close they come to realizing that genetic potential. - The genetic range of intellectual potential is influenced by *many* genes, not by a simple gene. **[Twin Studies]**: The heredity-environment issue has been explored by comparing the IQ scores of individuals who are genetically related to different degrees: - - - - - Differences *within* groups vs. differences *between* groups \*It is possible to estimate the degree of difference *within* a specific group that is due to heredity, but not the difference *between* groups that is due to heredity. \*In a survey of intelligence test scores around the world, 14 nations were found to have shown significant gains in average IQ score in just one generation. Such changes in a population can be accounted for *only by environmental changes*, because the amount of time is far too short for genetically influenced changes to have occurred. James R Flynn studied IQ scores around the world and found that in 30+ countries, including the US, there were improvements in test scores over the past few generations. This is now referred to as the **Flynn Effect** and supports the impact of environmental factors on intelligence because the amount of time is too short to have such significant genetic changes take place.    [Cross-Cultural Studies of Group Discrimination and IQ Differences ] The effect of social discrimination on intelligence test scores has been shown in numerous cross-cultural studies. The average IQ is lower for members of a discriminated-against minority group, even when that group is not racially different from the dominant group.  -Burakumin of Japan - discriminated against in Japan, treated as outcasts, IQs are 10-15 points lower than the mainstream Japanese people. When they come to the US and are treated like any other Japanese person, their IQ is just as high as other Japanese Americans.  According to psychologist **Claude Steele**, **stereotype threat** occurs when you and/or members of a particular group fear that you and/or they will be evaluated in terms of a negative stereotype about the group. This fear creates anxiety and doubt and lower performance. [Are IQ Tests Culturally Biased?] The typical standardized intelligence test reflects white, middle-class cultural knowledge and values. A person taking a test that's a member of a minority-group might do poorly *not* because of lower intelligence *but because* they lack familiarity with white, middle-class culture. Black psychologist **Robert Williams** looked specifically at the Standard-English on IQ tests that would be challenging for minority children.  -Questions that compared items like violins and cellos would be difficult for a Black child, but familiar for a White child.  -There were no questions asking about tortillas or collards, concepts Black and other minority children would know.  Williams went on to create an intelligence test - Black Intelligence Test of Cultural Homogeneity. In it, he used language common to Black communities. (100 MC questions.) Black students out-performed White students on this test.    It is generally recognized that it is impossible to design a completely culture-free test. A test will tend to favor the people from the culture in which it was developed. Cultural differences in *test-taking behavior* may also affect test performance. In addition, such cultural factors as motivation, attitudes toward test taking, and previous experiences with tests can affect performance and scores on test. **[Creativity:]** Creativity is a group of cognitive processes used to generate useful, original, and novel ideas or solutions to problems.   The following are ways to enhance your creativity... **C**hoose the goal of creativity **R**einforce creative behavior **E**ngage in problem finding **A**cquire relevant knowledge **T**ry different approaches **E**xert effort and expect setbacks