Language Teaching Methods Summary PDF

**Dimensions of Language Teaching Methods** Language-teaching methods can be characterized by three dimensions: - **Language Focus**: This contrasts methods that emphasize **speech communication** with those focusing on **literature, reading, and writing**. Most methods, except Grammar-T...

**Dimensions of Language Teaching Methods** Language-teaching methods can be characterized by three dimensions: - **Language Focus**: This contrasts methods that emphasize **speech communication** with those focusing on **literature, reading, and writing**. Most methods, except Grammar-Translation, prioritize speech. - **Meaning Learning**: This distinguishes between learning meaning through **direct experience** and through **translation**. Direct experience involves exposure to real-world contexts, while translation uses the native language to explain meanings. - **Grammar Learning**: This contrasts methods using **induction**, where students discover rules themselves, with methods using **explication**, where rules are explained in the native language. **Traditional Methods** - **Grammar-Translation (GT)**: - **Historical Roots**: GT is an old method, with translation used in ancient times and grammar studies added in the 17th century. - **Focus:** This method primarily focuses on **reading and writing**, with the main goal often being the ability to read literary works and documents in the target language. It also emphasizes the translation of written words. - **Meaning Learning:** GT uses **translation** to explain the meaning of vocabulary and structures. The native language is used to provide the meaning for the target language. - **Grammar Learning:** **Explicit explanations** of grammatical rules are given in the native language. Students memorize, recite, and apply these rules. - **Classroom Activities:** Lessons include a reading passage in the target language, vocabulary lists with translations, and grammatical explanations in the native language. Exercises often involve translation and grammar questions. - **Advantages:** GT can be used effectively by teachers who may not be fluent in the target language and in large class sizes. It is also conducive to self-study. The method is adaptable to new linguistic and psychological theories. - **Disadvantages:** GT largely ignores speaking and oral communication. It is not suitable for young children and may not lead to communicative competence. - **Theorists**: Kelly (1969), Titone (1968), and Darian (1972) are noted for in-depth treatments of GT. - **Natural Method (NM)**: - **Philosophical Basis**: NM emerged from the Enlightenment\'s focus on natural human development. - **Child Language Model**: NM uses a child\'s native language acquisition as a model, focusing on comprehension, then production, and later reading and writing. - **Focus:** This method emphasizes the learning of language through **natural speech in context**. - **Meaning Learning:** Meaning is acquired through **direct experience** and exposure to objects, situations, and events; translation is avoided. - **Grammar Learning**: Grammatical rules are learned through **induction** (self-analysis) by experiencing speech in situational contexts. Grammar is not taught directly. - **Classroom Activities:** Learning occurs through spontaneous conversations and demonstrations, all done in the target language, supported by gestures and actions. The teacher uses language appropriate to the students' level of understanding. - **Advantages:** The NM enables learners to acquire speech capabilities in both understanding and production. - **Disadvantages:** The method places a heavy burden on teachers to create interesting and natural situations and requires a high level of fluency from the teacher. It is also best suited to small classes. - **Theorists**: Comenius (1568), Rousseau (1780), Pestalozzi (1801), Sauveur (1878), and Gouin (1880) were influential in the development of the Natural Method. - **Direct Method (DM)**: - **Development**: DM developed from NM, aiming for more systematic teaching using scientific linguistic and psychological knowledge. - **Focus:** Similar to the Natural Method, DM focuses on the **learning of speech** and acquiring meaning in environmental contexts. - **Meaning Learning:** Meaning is gained through **direct connection** between the second language and meaning, without the use of the native language. - **Grammar Learning:** Grammar is learned through **induction**. - **Classroom Activities:** Lessons are devoted to oral communication, with an emphasis on speech understanding before production. Elementary social dialogues, questions, and commands for action are introduced early. Materials are preselected and graded based on linguistic complexity. - **Advantages:** DM is more structured than the Natural Method, making language learning more efficient, and it can be used in larger classes. - **Disadvantages:** Like the Natural Method, DM requires teachers with inventiveness and high fluency in the second language. - **Theorists**: Harold Palmer (1922) was a key advocate. - **Audiolingual Method (ALM)**: - **Theoretical Basis**: ALM was influenced by American structural linguistics and behaviorist psychology. - **Focus:** This method is rooted in structural linguistics and behaviorist psychology, focusing on **sentence patterns** as the learning fundamentals for language. - **Meaning Learning:** Meaning is often secondary to the focus on repetition and pattern drills. - **Grammar Learning:** Grammar is learned through the **repetition of sentence patterns** and substitution drills. - **Classroom Activities**: Lessons involve planned situations, graded materials, and techniques such as pattern drills and dialogue memorization. Natural situations and spontaneous speech are dropped in favor of mechanical drills. - **Advantages:** In its time, ALM generated enthusiasm by applying the latest scientific word on how humans learn language. - **Disadvantages**: ALM failed to produce fluent speakers, relying too much on mechanical repetition and not enough on meaningful communication. - **Theorists**: Charles Fries was a key figure. Skinner, Watson and Thorndike influenced the method with their work on behaviorist psychology. **Offbeat Methods** - **Cognitive Code, Community Language Learning, Silent Way, and Suggestopedia** are methods that arose after the downfall of ALM, but have not survived. **Contemporary Methods** - **Total Physical Response (TPR)**: - **Action and Memory**: TPR is based on the idea that physical actions enhance memory. Learners respond to commands with physical actions. - **Direct Method Link**: TPR shares ideas with the Direct Method. - **Focus**: TPR is a 'natural'-type method where **speech understanding precedes speech production**, and only the target language is used in the classroom. - **Meaning Learning:** Meaning is derived from **actual objects and situations**. - **Grammar Learning:** Students are encouraged to induce rules on their own. - **Classroom Activities:** Learners perform physical actions in response to the teacher's commands in the target language. Activities include commands paired with statements or questions, with the teacher demonstrating the meaning of words and sentences. - **Advantages:** TPR can enhance memory through motor activity, with students learning vocabulary and structures quickly. TPR works especially well with children. - **Disadvantages:** TPR is best used in the early phases of second-language learning, becoming less relevant for advanced language knowledge. Some adults may feel embarrassed by the physical actions. It is also difficult to review material outside of the classroom. - **Theorists**: James Asher (1970s) is the founder of TPR. Harold Palmer\'s work also influenced this method. - **Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)**: - **Functions and Notions**: CLT focuses on functions (requests, denials) and notions (frequency, quantity), emphasizing communicative speech. - **Eclectic Approach**: CLT uses various techniques from other methods (GT, ALM, TPR) as long as they aid communication. - **Focus:** This method emphasizes the **ability to communicate** in the target language. - **Flexibility**: CLT permits reading, writing, grammar explanations and translation if it enhances communication. - **Meaning Learning:** Meaning is gained through **real-life situations and dialogues**. Native language aids may be used for particular points, if needed. - **Grammar Learning:** Grammar explanations, and translation in the native language, are permitted in the classroom to further the communicative ability of the student. Grammar is not learned exclusively by induction. - **Classroom Activities:** Lessons often start with dialogues based on real-life situations. The method integrates aspects from various other methods, such as Grammar--Translation, Audiolingual, Community Language Learning, and TPR. - **Advantages:** CLT allows anything into the classroom that will further the communicative ability of the student, including various other methods, making it eclectic and widely used. - **Disadvantages:** Since it is eclectic and borrows techniques from other methods, it is not a single approach with a clear set of principles. - **Theorists**: Wilkins (1972, 1976), Alexander (1978), Widdowson (1978), Brumfit and Johnson (1979), and Yalden (1983) contributed to the development of CLT. - **Natural Approach (NA)**: - **Theoretical Orientation**: NA is as much a theoretical description of language acquisition as a method. - **Focus:** Similar to the Natural Method and Direct Method, NA emphasizes the importance of **listening comprehension** and delayed speech production. It aims to develop basic personal communication skills, both oral and written. - **Meaning Learning:** Meaning is derived through exposure to language input, often using pictures, objects, charts, and situations in the classroom. - **Grammar Learning:** Grammatical structures are expected to be acquired through **appropriate language input**. Rules are seldom explained and are expected to be learned inductively. - **Classroom Activities**: Materials are **graded** from simple to complex, and teachers provide input that may be slightly higher than students can understand. Personal learning factors are given special consideration. - **Affective Filter**: NA considers the \"Affective Filter\" (motivation, self-confidence, anxiety) as a factor in language learning, though this is debated. - **Acquisition vs. Learning**: NA distinguishes between \"acquisition\" (unconscious) and \"learning\" (conscious), claiming that learned knowledge does not become automatic, a claim that is also debated. - **Monitor Hypothesis**: The Monitor Hypothesis suggests that \"learned\" rules are always monitored consciously, but this is heavily criticized. - **Theorists**: Terrell (1977, 1982) and Krashen (1982) developed the Natural Approach. Skehan (1989) and Scovel (1978) offer alternative views on the affective filter. Bialystok (1979, 1981), Gregg (1984) and Steinberg (1993) also contributed criticism of the Monitor Hypothesis. Ellis (1994) introduced the idea of \'consciousness raising\' tasks. - **Advantages:** NA promotes a relaxed and encouraging learning environment by focusing on communication rather than grammatical accuracy. - **Disadvantages:** The method\'s distinction between \'acquisition\' and \'learning\' and its \'Affective Filter\' concept are disputed by some theorists. - **Content-Based Instruction (CBI)**: - **Focus:** This method organizes language teaching around the **subject matter** that students need to master, rather than around a linguistic syllabus. - **Meaning Learning**: Students learn language by using it to engage with subject matter, rather than learning it as a subject itself. - **Grammar Learning**: Grammar is often explained by the teacher, rather than learned by induction, and is seen as a component of other skills. - **Integration of Skills**: CBI incorporates several skills, recognizing their intertwined nature. - **Purposeful Learning**: CBI assumes language is purposeful and learners are more successful when using language to get interesting and useful information. - **Classroom Activities:** CBI uses language to get information and is built upon texts and discourse, not just sentences and phrases, and involve various skills such as reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Materials are authentic and similar to those used in native-language instruction. - **Advantages:** CBI makes language learning more purposeful, by linking it to the students\' goals. - **Disadvantages:** The quantity of new material can be overwhelming for some students. Teachers have to cope with a double workload, preparing for classes with a subject matter, rather than simply a language focus. - **Theorists**: Mohan (1986), Brinton et al. (1989), Stryker and Leaver (1993), Stoller (1997), and Richards and Rodgers (2001) outlined core principles of CBI. - **Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)**: - **Focus:** This method emphasizes **specially designed instructional tasks** as the basis of learning, encouraging learners to interact communicatively while engaging in tasks. - **Learning Theory**: TBLT emphasizes that learners learn better through meaningful activities, communication, and authentic materials. - **Meaning Learning:** Meaning is gained through the completion of tasks using the target language. - **Grammar Learning:** Language is learned by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in activities. Grammar is addressed as part of the task, but is not directly taught. - **Classroom Activities:** The use of tasks and puzzles as a unit in curriculum. Tasks are designed to be communicative activities, involving real-world language skills such as finding a solution to a puzzle, reading a map and giving directions, making a telephone call, writing a letter, or reading a set of instructions and assembling a toy. - **Advantages:** TBLT motivates learners and promotes learning because it typically uses authentic materials. - **Disadvantages:** The effectiveness of TBLT as a superior teaching approach is not fully proven. - **Theorists**: Nunan (1989), Pica (1994), and Skehan (1998) offer differing views on task definitions. Feez (1998) outlined the core concepts of TBLT. - **Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)**: - **Focus**: This method uses **computer programs for language instruction**, allowing for individualized learning at the learner\'s pace. - **Meaning Learning:** Meaning is conveyed through the computer program, and may include drilling to get language skills automated. - **Grammar Learning:** Grammar is presented in structured exercises. - **Classroom Activities:** Computer programs deliver learning material that is matched to the needs of the learner. CALL programs provide structured exercises on any grammatical or lexical problem. - **Advantages:** CALL is largely oriented to the individual learner, allowing for learning at their own pace, and can enlarge the class capacity without increasing teaching staff. - **Disadvantages**: CALL is still not widely used due to problems with software and compatibility. It is mainly used as a helpful auxiliary technique. - **Theorists**: Olsen (1980), Ely (1995), Kidd (1997) and Harris (1998) have all conducted research into CALL. **Goals and Method Selection** - **No Universal Method**: There is no single \"magic\" method; students will learn something from any approach. - **Goal-Oriented Selection**: Method choice depends on the goals: speech-based methods for speaking and understanding, GT for reading and writing. - **National Goals**: A country\'s goals will influence the choice of method. - **Teacher Choice**: Teachers can create personalized methods using aspects of different approaches. **Glossary of Key Terms** **Audiolingual Method (ALM):** A method that emphasizes repetition, pattern drills, and behaviorist learning principles, focusing on spoken language and grammar through structural linguistics. **Affective Filter:** A term from the Natural Approach referring to emotional factors like motivation, confidence, and anxiety that can either facilitate or inhibit language acquisition. **Behaviorism:** A psychological theory that views learning as a process of stimulus-response and emphasizes habit formation through repetition and reinforcement. **Cognitive Code:** A language learning approach emphasizing conscious understanding of language rules and structures. **Communicative Language Teaching (CLT):** An eclectic approach that prioritizes communication and the use of the target language for real-life purposes. **Content-Based Instruction (CBI):** An approach that integrates language learning with a subject matter, using the target language as a medium for instruction. **Direct Method (DM):** A method that emphasizes learning through natural speech and direct association of meaning and form, avoiding translation and focusing on oral communication. **Explication:** A process by which grammatical rules are explained directly in the native language of the learner. **Grammar-Translation Method (GT):** A method that relies heavily on translation, grammatical rules, and memorization, primarily focusing on reading and writing skills over speech. **Induction:** A process by which learners discover grammatical rules and structures on their own by observing and analyzing language patterns. **Mentalism:** A psychological theory that views language learning as an innate ability dependent on an underlying mental structure. **Monitor Hypothesis:** Part of Krashen\'s theory, suggesting that learners use learned rules to consciously monitor their language output; only in the conditions of adequate time, focus on form and knowledge of the rules. **Natural Approach (NA):** A method focused on communication skills, emphasizing comprehensible input and delaying speech production until the learner is ready. **Natural Method (NM):** A method that emphasizes learning through exposure to language in natural situations without formal instruction, mirroring first language acquisition. **Structural Linguistics:** A theory that analyzes language based on its structural components, like phonemes, morphemes, and sentence patterns. **Suggestopedia:** A method that seeks to use relaxation and suggestion to facilitate language learning. **Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT):** An approach that uses specially designed instructional tasks as the basis of learning, emphasizing communicative interaction and purposeful language use. **Total Physical Response (TPR):** A method that emphasizes kinesthetic learning by having learners respond to commands in the target language through physical actions. 1. **What are the three dimensions used to characterize second-language teaching methods?** 2. **How does the Grammar-Translation method approach language learning?** 3. **Describe how meaning is learned in the Natural Method, contrasting it with the Grammar-Translation method.** 4. **How does the Direct Method differ from the Natural Method, and what improvements did it aim to make?** 5. **What are the two main theoretical foundations of the Audiolingual Method?** 6. **What is the core idea behind Total Physical Response (TPR), and how does it implement that idea?** 7. **What is the central principle of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), and what does it prioritize in language instruction?** 8. **Explain the concept of the \"Affective Filter\" in the Natural Approach.** 9. **How does Content-Based Instruction (CBI) integrate language learning with subject matter, and what role does the teacher play?** 10. **What is the primary focus of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), and what does it use as the basis of learning?** **Essay Questions** **1. Compare and contrast the Grammar-Translation method with the Natural Method, highlighting their underlying principles, goals, and limitations.** - **Underlying Principles:** - **Grammar-Translation (GT):** This method is based on the principles of **explicit grammar explanation** using the native language and the use of **translation** to explain vocabulary and structures. It views language learning as a process of understanding and applying grammatical rules through the native language. - **Natural Method (NM):** This method is based on the principle that **\"natural is best\"**, modeling second language learning on the way children acquire their first language. This involves a focus on meaning-related situations and learning through experience. - **Goals:** - **GT:** The primary goal is to develop the ability to **read and understand written texts**, especially literary works. While some may see literacy as a means to approaching speech, it is not the primary goal. - **NM:** The primary goal is to develop **speech communication skills** by replicating the natural order of first language acquisition. This involves comprehension, then production, then reading and writing. - **Limitations:** - **GT:** - **Neglects Oral Communication:** GT largely ignores the development of oral communication skills, focusing on reading and writing. - **Not for Young Learners:** It is unsuitable for young children who cannot read, write, or understand grammatical explanations. - **NM:** - **Demanding on Teachers**: NM requires teachers to be highly fluent, creative, and able to create engaging spontaneous situations. - **Class Size Issues:** The method works best with small class sizes, making it difficult to implement in mass education settings. **In Summary:** GT focuses on literacy, using the native language for grammar and translation, while NM emphasizes natural speech acquisition through experience. GT is less demanding on teachers and can accommodate large classes, but neglects oral skills, while NM prioritizes oral skills but demands highly skilled teachers and small class sizes. **2. Trace the evolution of speech-based methods from the Natural Method to Total Physical Response, discussing their shared characteristics and key differences.** - **Natural Method (NM):** - **Focus:** It emphasized learning through **spontaneous conversation** and demonstrations in the target language, with meaning derived from context. - **Learning Sequence:** It followed the natural sequence of language acquisition: comprehension, speech production, and then reading and writing. - **Inductive Grammar:** Grammar was to be learned inductively, through exposure to speech in context. - **Direct Method (DM):** - **Development:** DM developed from NM, aiming for more systematic teaching based on linguistic and psychological principles. - **Direct Connection to Meaning:** It emphasized a **direct link between the target language and meaning**, avoiding the use of the native language. - **Graded Materials:** DM used **preselected and graded materials** based on linguistic complexity. - **Techniques:** Used dialogues, questions, commands, pattern drills and dialogue memorization. - **Total Physical Response (TPR):** - **Action and Memory:** TPR emphasizes the use of **physical actions** in response to commands in the target language, enhancing memory. - **Similarities with DM:** TPR shares many ideas with the Direct Method, particularly its focus on natural language in context. - **Physical Activity:** TPR places greater emphasis on physical activity than previous methods. - **Classroom Activities**: Lessons begin with simple commands, progressing to more complex instructions and paired statements. - **Shared Characteristics:** - **Speech Emphasis:** All three methods prioritize the **development of oral communication skills**. - **Meaning Through Context:** They emphasize learning meanings through direct experience in contextual situations. - **Inductive Grammar**: They all favor learning grammar through induction, although DM sometimes provides grammatical explanations sparingly. - **Natural Order:** They tend to follow the natural order of language acquisition (listening, speaking, reading, writing). - **Key Differences:** - **Systematic Approach:** DM sought to systematize NM by applying linguistic and psychological principles. - **Use of Physical Actions**: TPR introduced physical actions in response to commands as a core learning strategy. - **Graded Material**: While NM used spontaneous speech and unstructured material, DM used graded materials, and TPR uses commands that progress from simple to complex **In Summary:** These methods evolved from a focus on spontaneous natural communication to a more systematic approach which involves physical activity as a means for learning. **3. Evaluate the theoretical underpinnings and practical applications of the Audiolingual Method, considering its successes and ultimate downfall.** - **Theoretical Underpinnings:** - **Structural Linguistics:** ALM was based on the principles of **American structural linguistics**, which analyzed sentences as sequences of grammatical word classes. - **Behaviorist Psychology:** It incorporated the behaviorist view that language learning is a process of **stimulus and response**, with learning through repetition and mechanical drills. - **Sentence Patterns**: The method used sentence patterns as the basis of learning, with new sentences formed by substituting words within word classes. - **Practical Applications:** - **Planned Situations and Graded Materials:** ALM used planned situations, graded materials, and pattern drills for instruction. - **Dialogue Memorization:** The method incorporated dialogue memorization and pattern practice drills. - **Reduced Meaning**: Some ALM advocates reduced the meaningfulness of the speech that was taught. - **Successes:** - **Initial Enthusiasm:** ALM generated significant enthusiasm among teachers who adopted this method. - **Downfall:** - **Failure to Produce Fluency**: ALM failed to produce fluent speakers as it had promised. - **Theoretical Flaws:** The method\'s theoretical foundations were undermined by Chomsky\'s critique of structural linguistics and behaviorist psychology. - **Meaningless Drills**: The use of meaningless drills was criticized as ineffective for genuine communication. - **Limited Application**: Today, only pattern practice drills remain, used as an auxiliary exercise. **In Summary:** ALM was based on structural linguistics and behaviorist psychology, emphasizing drills and patterns. Despite initial enthusiasm, it failed to produce fluent speakers due to its flawed theoretical underpinnings and the lack of meaningful communication. **4. Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of Communicative Language Teaching, including its eclectic nature and its place in current second language pedagogy.** - **Strengths:** - **Focus on Communication:** CLT prioritizes the **ability to communicate**, using real-life situations and dialogues. - **Eclectic Approach:** It integrates aspects from various methods (GT, ALM, TPR) if they aid communication, making it very adaptable. - **Flexibility:** CLT allows for the use of reading, writing, grammar explanations, and translation, as long as it enhances communication. - **Real-Life Context**: Lessons start with real-life situations to encourage communication. - **Learner-Centered:** CLT emphasizes the student\'s desire to communicate, and allows for student needs in the classroom. - **Weaknesses:** - **Lack of a Defined Method:** CLT is not a method in itself, but an approach that borrows aspects from other methods. - **Potential for Inconsistency:** The eclectic nature may lead to inconsistent application, as teachers may choose different techniques. - **Place in Current Pedagogy:** - **Widespread Use:** CLT is one of the most widespread teaching methods in use today. - **Practical Approach:** Its flexibility and emphasis on communication make it suitable for diverse learning contexts. - **Integration with Other Methods:** It is often used as a framework, supplemented by techniques from other methods. **In Summary:** CLT's strength lies in its focus on communication, its eclectic approach, and its flexibility. However, its lack of a defined methodology and potential inconsistency are areas of weakness. CLT is currently a widely used approach due to its practical and communicative focus. **5. Discuss the key arguments for and against Krashen's \"acquisition-learning distinction\" and the \"Monitor Hypothesis\", and explain their relevance to second language teaching methods.** - **Krashen\'s \"Acquisition-Learning Distinction\":** - **Acquisition:** Krashen posited that language \"acquisition\" is an **unconscious process**, similar to first language acquisition, where rules are inductively absorbed. - **Learning:** Language \"learning,\" in contrast, is a **conscious process** of studying and applying rules explicitly. - **Key Claim:** Krashen claimed that \"learned\" knowledge cannot become unconscious or automatic, unlike \"acquired\" knowledge. - **Arguments Against the Distinction:** - **Counterintuitive:** Many argue it is counterintuitive, and that consciously learned knowledge can become automatic through practice. - **Arithmetic Analogy:** The ability to perform arithmetic illustrates that formal instruction can lead to unconscious and automatic application of rules. - **Consciousness in Acquisition:** Even rules acquired by induction can be consciously monitored and reflected upon. - **Lack of Evidence:** There is a lack of convincing evidence to support that learned knowledge can not become unconscious and automatic. - **The Monitor Hypothesis:** - **Learned Rules:** The Monitor Hypothesis suggests that \"learned\" rules are always consciously monitored and applied when producing sentences. - **Limited Application**: \"Learned\" rules can only be applied if learners have adequate time, are focused on grammatical form, and know the rule of grammar. - **Acquired Grammar**: No monitoring occurs when speech is based on acquired grammar. - **Arguments Against the Monitor Hypothesis:** - **Conscious Monitoring in Early Stages**: Conscious monitoring often occurs only in the early stages of learning when the knowledge is not well integrated. - **Monitoring is Helpful**: Conscious monitoring can aid, not hinder, acquisition. - **Lack of Support:** The Monitor Hypothesis has been criticized and lacks empirical evidence. - **Relevance to Second Language Teaching Methods:** - **Natural Approach:** Krashen and Terrell\'s \"acquisition-learning distinction\" and \"Monitor Hypothesis\" underpin the Natural Approach, which de-emphasizes formal grammar instruction in favor of natural, communicative experiences. - **Debate on Grammar Teaching**: The debate around Krashen\'s theories impacts the extent to which explicit grammar teaching should be included in language lessons. - **Balanced Approach:** The sources suggest a balanced approach using direct speech experiences, consciousness raising activities, and explicit rule explanations. **In Summary:** Krashen\'s distinction between acquisition and learning, and his Monitor Hypothesis, are controversial. While these theories have influenced methods such as the Natural Approach by de-emphasizing formal grammar instruction, many theorists disagree with them and believe that both conscious and unconscious learning processes play a role in second language acquisition.