Fundamentals of Additional Language Teaching PDF

Introduction. ============= Course description ------------------ This provides future teachers of additional languages with a background knowledge on different methods and approaches regarding the teaching of English as a Foreign Language. We will also analyze the independent variables of the lan...

Introduction. ============= Course description ------------------ This provides future teachers of additional languages with a background knowledge on different methods and approaches regarding the teaching of English as a Foreign Language. We will also analyze the independent variables of the language learners (individual factors, learning styles and strategies), and the linguistic policies (European, national, regional) currently underlying the teaching of additional languages. COURSE CONTENT -------------- 1. Principles in second language acquisition. 2. Individual differences and language learning. 3. Approaches and methods in language teaching. 4. The Communicative Language Teaching Approach. 5. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages and the Companion Volume; the European Language Portfolio. 6. Recent developments in language teaching. 7. The national curriculum. Assessment ---------- - ePortfolio (with all the activities and reflections on mandatory reading assignments): 25% - Presentation: 10% - Attendance, active participation and autonomy: 15% - \*Attendance is compulsory (85%), please, use the 15% left for personal issues that might happen. - Final exam (based on class work, presentations and reading material): 40% 2 BASIC RESPONSIBILITY RULES ---------------------------- Teacher will upload readings and handouts on Campus Virtual (CV) Student must visit CV regularly, print out the readings and read them BEFORE the session -- teacher will announce it in class. OFFICE HOURS ------------ - Face-to-face: Wednesday, 12:30 PM-3:30 PM (by appointment) - Online Thursdays, 1:00 PM - 4:00 PM(by appointment) - Email: What is an ePortfolio? ---------------------- "A web-based, student-generated collections of learning artifacts (papers, multimedia projects, speeches, images, etc.) and related reflections, focused on learning and growth." (Eynon and Gambino, 2017, p.1) What is it used for? -------------------- 1. LEARNING TOOL Develop, demonstrate and reflect on student's own learning (Stefani, Manson, Pegler, 2007; JISC, 2008) 2. EVALUATION TOOL Provide teachers with a form of assessment other than standardized testing, by capturing more fully the multi-faceted, complex nature of student learning (Cummins & Davesne, 2009) 3. JOB SEARCH TOOL Showcase skills and competences to potential employers in job applications (Willis & Wilkie, 2009) block 1: PRINCIPLES in Second Language Acquisition. =================================================== Basic terms: ------------ - E.F.L English as a foreign language. No used in the daily life, used in class no Anglo speaking country - E.S.L English as a second language. English-speaking country. Used in the daily life - Lingua franca English is the language of business, computers, medicine, banking, etc It is spoken by 2/3 of the world as a second language. English as an instrument to transmit knowledge - CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) - CBI (Content Based Instruction) LANGUAGE LEARNING VS LANGUAGE ACQUISITION ----------------------------------------- **Language acquisition** is the natural process of language learning used to develop language skills in a child's native language. The home environment to acquire a native language is sometimes different from the classroom environment. When a child acquires the native language, he/she focuses more on the meaning than on the form. **Language learning** is used to describe a more formal approach to language instructions, focusing on the form rather than on the message conveyed. HOW DO WE ACQUIRE A LANGUAGE? ----------------------------- **Behaviorist Theory of Language Acquisition** through imitation, positive reinforcement, PAVLOVʼS CLASSICAL CONDITIONING, there is a limited usefulness, grammar translation method. B. F. Skinner (1940s-50s) Operant Conditioning -- learning through consequences. Positive reinforcement leads learners to form habits of correct language use through practice. Language is learned by imitation **Innatism Perspective** Major Learning Theories Applied to SLA Innatist Perspective: Noam Chomsky who says that Children are biologically programmed for language. Language Acquisition Device (LAD) are inborn structures in our brain. Language structure is hardwired as a kind of universal grammar. Children are born with universal grammar (UG). Chomsky believes that all languages contain similar elements. For example, language breaks down into similar categories of words: nouns, verbs, and adjectives, to name three. All children will learn their native language, and they only need someone to speak to them. Universal grammar helps childre learn L2. Chomsky´s theory leads to Krashen's theory on SLA which has been influential. NOAM CHOMSKY (1928 -) Is a linguist and a political and social activist. **COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE** Language development is a part of cognitive development. Its main supporter is Piaget (1946-1951) who says that Language development is closely related to cognitive development. Language is a symbol system. Language learning is information processing. First, we must pay attention to process information. Then, basic processes become automatic through practice. The four stages are: - Sensory motor sensory moment, reflexives, objects and personal pronouns, mobility acts. - Preoperational symbolically, pretend, object representation linking that is something real in life, egocentric, curious = a lot of questi - Concrete operational classify, conversation, inductive logic, view of the ego. - Formal operation abstract and deductive, abstract, social issues, identity, scientific thinking. Squemas the knowledge we use to assimilate and accommodate ideas is an active learner response. Vygotsky -------- Language develops through social interaction. Thought is internalized speech; language is using that speech with others. Zone of proximal development (ZPD) ### What is zone of proximal development? The zone that is just beyond our ability which is not too easy but not too challenging neither, we need to find the right balance to our student, we need to create activities that are challenging for them meaning not too easy but not too difficult because they can frustrate. This is a key concept to keep our students motivated. Krashen ------- "The best methods are therefore those that supply" ### Natural approach language acquisition theory. The teacher should use all the mediums possible to communicate with their students. Teacher should imitate caretaker speech. Communication as the primary function of language (communicative approach to language teaching), focusing on teaching communicative abilities rather than sterile language structures. The target language must be used in such a way that the message is always understood by the students. This is accomplished using gestures, examples, illustrations, experiences and caretaker speech. The speech that parents use when talking to children (caretaker speech) is vital in language acquisition; teachers should use caretaker speech. ### Main features of caretaker speech According to Krashen, teachers should use caretaker speech. 1. Slower rate of speech 2. More distinct pronunciation, avoiding contractions 3. Shorter sentences 4. More rephrasing and repetition 5. Frequent meaning checks with the listeners 6. Use of gesture and visual reinforcement 7. Greater use of concrete referents 8. Scaffolding ### SCAFFOLDING What is scaffolding? Write down five scaffolding strategies. - Starts with the product share a model of the activity before doing it. - Make direction clear to do list, no overwhelm them - Make your thinking visible share your struggles and they learn that is part of the process, show critical thinking through yours. - Structure conversation provide sentences started - Teach key vocabulary first avoid the loss of interest, use pictures, compar. #### Scaffolding for the English Language Learners VIDEO **Scaffolding** creating a structure that allows the child to move from where they are to where you want them to be. Build a background from which to add language. System help student to connect what they are learning to what they already know. I do we do you do framework - I DO MODEL - WE DO WORK TOGETHER ON THE ACC - YOU DO INDEPENDENT WORK **Type of scaffolds** Add realia, videos, images, sentence stems and frames, close sentence frames, word bank, translate article, reducing linguistic load, simplify directions, modify assessment and assignment. **Practices that help students to scaffold** think/pare/share, think aloud, extended wait time, collaboration, speech and body language, writing backup for oral instructions, check for understanding, Multiple intelligences and their application in the language classroom ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Eight distinct forms of intelligence. Each of the forms of intelligence is valuable and necessary in society, although most schools have tended to support and nurture only the first two: linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence. ### INTELLIGENCE TEST  ### MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE IN ACTION (PORTFOLIO ACC) THINK OF ACTIVITIES THAT PROMOTE DIFFERENT INTELLIGENCES WRITE DOWN ONE ACTIVITY FOR EACH TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE. - **Interpersonal ** We think that a good activity to improve interpersonal intelligence could be through debates or any social interaction. - **Intrapersonal ** We think that a good activity to improve intrapersonal intelligence could be journaling about your feelings and thoughts.  - **Linguistics ** We think that a good activity to improve linguistic intelligence could be writing and reading.  - **Musical ** We think that a good activity to improve musical intelligence could be analysing the different instruments that are in a song and learning how to play an instrument.  - **Naturalist ** We think that a good activity to improve naturalist intelligence could be spending time in connection with nature for example collecting natural elements or going to an \"astronomical observatory\". - **Logical-Mathematical** We think that a good activity to improve mathematic intelligence could be doing logic games.  - **Bodily-Kinaesthetic** We think that a good activity to improve kinaesthetic intelligence could be dancing or practicing other sports.  - **Spatial ** We think that a good activity to improve spatial intelligence could be by explaining how to get to a specific place. SOME LANGUAGE AQUISION PRINCIPLES AND THEIR IMPLICATION IN LANGUAGE TEACHING. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------    ### ESSAY 1: HOW DO KRASHEN\'S HYPOTHESES APPLY TO THE SL/FL CLASSROOM? (PORTFOLIO ACC) Summaries the main ideas. **Acquisition learning Hypothesis** There is a difference between acquisition and learning and to achieve qualified communication with fluidity is better to include acquisition rather than only learning. **Monitor hypothesis** It talks about "MONITORING" and it should have a balance between accuracy and fluency. In addition, it is mentioned that this balance is based on di. Correcting and asking for accuracy could be limiting sometimes. **The Natural Order hypothesis** The teachers oversee knowing that there is a certain predicable order by the time of teaching. They should introduce the easiest concept of the language first and then develop from there because students\' interactions might not be ready because of their developing stage. **The Input hypothesis** Students learn by being exposed to inputs, this input should be between their previously acquired knowledge and something new. This theory supports the use of the target language in the classroom as a perfect tool for exposing students to certain situations. **The Affective Filter hypothesis** There are emotional factors that could affect the learning process and that is why it is important to create a comfortable environment for the student's development. All of them influence on the teaching methods. ### ESSAY 2: Some Language Acquisition Principles and Their Implications for Second Language Teaching (PORTFOLIO ACC) INDIVIDUAL LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS IN SLA ========================================== ### AGE  ### SEX ### APTITUD  ### MOTIVATION ### ### ### ### LEARNING STYLE Language learning styles refer to cognitive variations in learning a second language. It is the personal patterns that individuals use to learn a second language. There are 4 types: 1. Concrete learning style: learners prefer information that has an immediate value. They like spontaneity, visual and verbal learning, or even being included physically. 2. Analytical learning style: they are independent learners, and they prefer a logical and systematic presentation of the new information to work of their own. They are serious and self-demanding learners. 3. Communicative learning style: they prefer a social approach to learning. They need personal feedback and an interactive learning process 4. Authority-oriented learning style: They prefer the traditional classroom and deal well with the teacher as the authority. Another learning methodology is the cognitive learning style which is divided into two types: 1. Field independent: they are independent beings. They prefer the logical, mathematical, and rational side. 2. Field dependent: they are more social and emotionally oriented people. It is important to remember that these types are not dichotomous but more a continuum. **COMMUNICATIVE LEARNING STYLE ACTIVITIES** One of the best ways to teach communicative students is with social interaction so we thought that a good activity could be making a Kahoot so they can work in pairs or in groups, they will debate, have feedback from the other members of the group and also as they are social learners they need an activity that is competitive and dynamic.  ### INTROVERT AND EXTROVERT  ### ACC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THREE STUDENTS **PABLO** Needs movement, so he would need something dynamic to avoid boring situations. Maybe in terms of methodology, he could use debates, roleplaying, and performances focusing on the content. He would be highly successful because he is inside what they called the critical period and his motivations also help him, so it should be easier for him to achieve his purpose. **PELIN** At age 11, he would need a combination of a more dynamic methodology and a more static or theoretical one. This learner could use the activities mentioned before and traditional ones such as writing or reading as a result of his development. In terms of success, we would also be successful as he is inside this critical period mentioned before but it would be harder for him as his motivations are null. **CHEN** To him, the most useful methodology would be the ones based on static activities directed to his job as he is learning as a tool instead of personal knowledge. In terms of success, it would be hard to him to acquire the language as he is over a critical period but due to his motivation, he would be fine by the time of acquiring the language. LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES ---------------------------- ### WHAT DO GOOD A LANGUAGE LEARNERS DO? The Good Language Learner project was performed by the researchers of Ontario Institute for Studies in Education in the mid-seventies. These empirical studies of "good" language learners aimed to discover how they learn and what strategies they use to succeed. Rubin (1975) and Naiman et al. (1978), describe the following strategies employed by "good" language learners: - The good language learner is a willing and accurate guesser. - The good language learner has a strong drive to communicate, or to learn from communication. He is willing to do many things to get his message across. - The good language learner is often not inhibited. He is willing to appear foolish if reasonable communication results. He is willing to make mistakes in order to learn and to communicate. In addition to focusing on communication the good language learner is prepared to attend to form. The good language learner is constantly looking for patterns in the language. - The good language learner practices. - The good language learner monitors his own and the speech of others. That is, he is constantly attending to how well his speech is being received and whether his performance meets the standards he has learned. - The good language learner attends to meaning. He knows that to understand the meaning it is not sufficient to pay attention to the language or to the surface form. - Good learners are able to identify the best strategy for a specific task. - Good learners are flexible in their approach and adopt a different strategy if the first one doesn't work. - Good learners have confidence in their learning ability. - Good learners expect to succeed. - Good learners fulfil their expectations. - Good learners are motivated. ### WHAT IS A LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGY? Rubin (1975) identifies strategies as "techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge." Later on, Rubin and Wenden (1987) describe learning strategies as "any set of operations, steps, plans, or routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval and use of information." In contrast Chamot y O'Malley (1990) define language learning strategies as "intellectual activities or special actions that help learners comprehend, learn, and retain information." Oxford and Nyikos (1989) characterize them as "operations used by learners to aid the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of information." In addition to this, Oxford (1990) states that those special actions are carried out with the objective of facilitating the learning process and making it: faster, more effective, more pleasant, more personal, adapting it to the needs of the learner. **Conscious and/or unconscious?** Cohen (1990) classifies as strategies ONLY those activities that students employ consciously. He considers conscious awareness and intentionality as indispensable elements of a learning strategy. Despite some discrepancies as for the definition of a language learning strategy proposed by different researchers, they all AGREE THAT LEARNING STRATEGIES FACILITATE LEARNING. Weinstein and Mayer (1986) also add: Learning strategies goal is to influence: - motivation - emotional state of a learner - to systematize new knowledge - assimilate new knowledge #### CLASSIFICATIONS The classification of language learning strategies has been a very difficult task due to lack of uniformity. Various researchers have attempted to develop coherent taxonomies. The two most influential ones are those proposed by O'Malley et al. (1990) and Oxford (1990). ##### Direct strategies ###### Memory Strategies Creating mental linkages - Grouping - Associating/ elaborating - Placing new words into context Applying images and sounds - Using Imagery - Semantic Mapping - Using Key words - Representing Sounds in Memory Reviewing well - Structured Reviewing Employing action - Using physical response or sensation - Using mechanical techniques ACTIVITY 2.2 /ACTIVITY 2.3/ACTIVITY 2.1 ###### COGNTIVE STRATEGIES Practicing - Repeating - Formally practicing with sound and writing systems - Recognizing and using formulas and patterns - Recombing - Practicing naturalistically (realistic setting) ACTIVITY 2.4 Receiving and sending messages - Getting the idea quickly - Using resources for receiving and sending messages ACTIVITY 2.6 Analysing and reasoning - Reasoning deductively - Analysis expressions - Analysis constructively - Translating - Transferring from one language to another ACTIVITY 2.7 Creating structure for input output - Taking notes - Summarizing - Highlighting ACTIVTY 2.8 ###### Compensation strategies - Guessing intelligently - Using linguistic clues - Using other clues - Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing - Switching to the mother tongue - Getting help - Using mime or gesture - Avoiding communication partially or totally - Selecting the topic - Adjusting or approximating the message - Coining words invent word for example "agendation" - Using circumlocution or synonyms ACTIVIVTY 2.9 ##### INDIRECT STRATEGIES ###### Metacognitive strategies Centring your learning - Overviewing and linking with already known material - Paying attention - Delaying speech production to focus on listening Arranging and planning your learning - Finding out about language learning - Organizing - Setting goals and objectives - Identifying the purpose of a language task (purposeful listening/reading/speaking/writing) - Planning for a language task - Seeking practice opportunities Evaluating your learning - self-evaluating - self-monitoring ###### Affective strategies Lowering your anxiety - Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing, or mediation. - Using music - Using laughter Encouraging yourself - Making positive statements - Taking risks wisely - Rewarding yourself Taking your emotional temperature - Listening to your body - Using checklist - Writing a language learning diary - Discussing your feelings with someone else ###### Social strategies Asking questions - Asking for clarification or verification - Asking for correction Cooperating with others - Cooperating with peers - Cooperating with proficient users of the new language Empathizing with others - Developing cultural understanding - Becoming aware of others' thoughts and feelings ACTIVITIES 4.1,4.3,4.5 ### O'Malley CLASSIFICATION: O'Malley defined 26 learning strategies and divided them into the following categories: - Metacognitive strategies: directed attention, selective attention, self-management, selfmonitoring, delayed production, selfevaluation, etc. - Cognitive strategies such as repetition, resourcing, deduction, translation, grouping or organizing materials, note-taking, associating, imagery, auditory representation, using key words, contextualisation, elaboration, transfer, inferring, etc. - Social strategies i.e. asking for clarification, cooperation, controlling emotions, talking to oneself, etc. GENERAL MODEL OF HOW TO TEACH STARTEGIES ---------------------------------------- Teach a few strategies at a time, intensively and extensively, as part of ongoing curriculum. - Model and explain new strategies. - Model and re-explain strategies in ways that are sensitive to aspects of strategy use that are not well understood. - Explain to students where and when to use strategies. - Provide extensive practice, using strategies for as many appropriate tasks as possible. - Encourage students to monitor how they are doing when they are using strategies. - Encourage continued use of strategies. - Increase student's motivation to use strategies by heightening students' awareness that they are acquiring valuable skills that are at the heart of competent functioning - Emphasize reflective processing rather than speedy processing; do all possible to eliminate high anxiety in students; encourage students to shield themselves from distractions so that they can attend to academic task. GOOD LANGUAGE LEARNERS' STRATEGIES ---------------------------------- "Our role as language and culture instructors is not only to teach our learners language and culture but to teach them HOW TO approach these learning tasks... and help them become more independent and empowered learners." TIPS ABOUT HOW TO TEACH ENGLISH TO TEENAGERS -------------------------------------------- *129 GAMES A DN ACTIVIES FOR TEENS BOOK AND THERE IS ALSO A WEBSIDE CALLED ESLACTIVITY.* - Don't take thing personally, have empathy. - Do need assessment, know their goal Asses their needs. - Build a relationship based medium, balance mutual respect - Relevant and interest t topics. - Don't do the same thing every day in your class. Be varied ### TOPICS FOR KIDS AND TEENAGERS. - All children should learn a second language. - Cell phones should be bun in schools - Recess should be longer - No junk food in school - Homework is not helpful DESCRIBING FOREIGN LANGUAGE SKILLS ================================== What is the CEFR? ----------------- The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) describes what language learners CAN DO at six different stages of their learning. - Speaking, writing producing - Reading, listening receiving EXPECTED LEVEL OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY AT THE END OF PRIMARY EDUCATION Students who have ended secondary education (ESO) should have obtained the level A2 of communicative competence according to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), in listening, speaking, reading and writing. Students who have ended two last years of high school (Bachillerato) should have obtained the level B1 of communicative competence according to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), in listening, speaking, reading and writing. NATIONAL CURRICULUM ------------------- ### LOMLOE /VIDEO ABOU T DIFFERENCES BETWEEN UNIDAD DIDACTICA AND SITUACIONES DE APRENSIZAJE/ Key features of learning situations: **LOMLOE AND LOMLOE BACH ACTIVITY** EUROPEAN LANGUAGE PORTFOLIO --------------------------- /Video/ the European language portfolio UPV. The ELP is compounded by: - Language passport Summary of your language level. - Language biography facilitate planning and assessing their progress, encourage what they can do in the language. Also reflect experience with language. - Language dossier part you can add documents, work you must prove your language level. Put all your document that prove your English level. Some examples are: (CV the whole documents) - ELP for Adults. Useful for Bachillerato - ELP. Irish Model. Useful for ESO - ELP. Scottish Model. Useful for ESO - ELP. UK. Junior version **WHAT LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES DOES THE ELP TEACH? Activity** **CULTURAL COMPETENCE ELP activity** Approaches and methods in language teaching =========================================== Grammar translation method -------------------------- Based on Latin. The goal is to learn a language in order to read its literature or to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from foreign-language study. Reading and writing are the main focus. Words are taught through lists, dictionary study and memorization. Grammar is taught deductively. ### What are the positive and negative points of this method?  - **Positive:** easy to learn vocabulary (easy starting point), good "first step", more confident. - **Negative:** it is not "natural", too many steps in the translation frustrating, no full meanings, it is difficult to describe the accurate meaning, purpose no full understanding, focus on grammar may make it boring lost of interest. It is like a puzzle. - \*Target language = The language that is being learnt; second/foreign language ### Characteristics of the Grammar-translation method: 1. Makes use of translation and grammar for learning a second or foreign language. 2. Rote-learning = learning by heart, memorization 3. Students memorize lists of vocabulary items and their meanings. 4. Focus on accuracy = the ability to do something without mistakes. 5. The first language is the medium of instruction, not the target language. 6. Reading and writing are the major focus, rather than speaking ### TECHNICHES - Translation of literary passages - Reading comprehension questions - Antonyms/Synonyms - Cognates - Deductive Application of Rules - Fill-in-the-blanks Exercise - Memorisation - Use words in sentences - Composition DIRECT METHOD ------------- Revived as a method when the goal of instruction became learning how to use another language to communicate. Language is primarily speech. ### PRINCIPLES - Native language should not be used in the classroom. - No translation allowed. - Students should learn to think in the target language ASAP. - Students must make a direct association between target language form & meaning. - The teacher becomes a demonstrator (does not explain/ translate). - Language is primarily speech & purpose of language learning is COMMUNICATION - Pronunciation should be worked on right from the beginning. - Grammar is taught inductively. No rules provided. - Self-correction is fostered. It is not always possible in first levels, so we use questions to make them correct what they have said wrong **recasting** - Lessons should be focused on using the language. - Syllabus based on situations or topics. ### TEACHNIQUES - Reading Aloud - Question & Answer Practice - Getting Students to self-correct - Conversation Practice - Fill-in-the-Blanks Exercises - Dictation - Map Drawing - Paragraph Writing Audiolingual method ------------------- Memorization and repetition of dialogues and patterns. Oral skills are more important than written skills. Based on behaviourism & comparisons of languages. ### Principles of the audiolingual Method - Language learning is learning structures, sounds or words. - Drilling is a central technique - Language items are not contextualized - Grammar is induced from the examples given; explicit grammar rules are not provided. - Students' reading and written work is based upon the oral work they did earlier. - "Language is a habit" so errors must be prevented - The teacher is like an orchestra leader, directing and controlling the language behaviour of her students. He/she is also responsible for providing students with a good model for imitation. ### Positive and negatives points **Positive aspects**: learn pronunciation quickly, learn vocabulary quickly. **Negative aspect:** no natural or realistic context, errors should be prevented, accuracy no fluency, boring method ### EXAMPLES EXAMPLE 1 1. Teacher: My mother is a doctor. 2. Students: My mother is a doctor 3. Teacher: She works in a hospital 4. Students: She works in a hospital 5. Teacher: My mother is a doctor. She works in a hospital 6. Students: My mother is a doctor. She works in a hospital 7. Teacher: She takes care of patients. 8. Students: She takes care of patients. 9. Teacher: My mother is a doctor. She works in a hospital. She takes care of patients 10. Students: My mother is a doctor. She works in a hospital. She takes care of patients EXAMPLE 2 - A: Hi, how are you? - B: Fine, how are you? - A: Hi, how are you? - C: Fine, how are you? - C: Hi, how are you - B: Hi, how are you? - A: Hi, how are you? - C: Fine, how are you? ### Techniques - Dialogue memorisation - Different types of drills - Minimal Pairs - Complete a dialogue - Grammar game \*There is student-to-student interaction in chain drills or when students take different roles in dialogues, but this interaction is teacher-directed. Most of the interaction is between teacher and students and is initiated by the teacher. #### Grammar game The teacher leads the class in the 'supermarket alphabet game.' The game starts with a student who needs a food item beginning with the letter 'A.' The student says, 'I am going to the supermarket. I need a few apples.' The next student says, 'I am going to the supermarket. He needs a few apples. I need a little bread' (or 'a few bananas,' or any other food item you could find in the supermarket beginning with the letter 'B'). The third student continues, 'I am going to the supermarket. He needs a few apples. She needs a little bread. I need a little cheese.' The game continues with each player adding an item that begins with the next letter in the alphabet. Before adding his or her own item, however, each player must mention the items of the previous students. If the student has difficulty thinking of an item, the other students or the teacher helps. #### MINIMAL PAIRS A minimal pair is two words that vary by only a single sound, usually meaning sounds that may confuse English learners, like the /s/ and /z/ in bus and buzz, or the /e/ and /ɪ/ in desk and disk. **MINIMAL PAIRS EXAMPLES:** [VOWEL SOUNDS] - Minimal Pair /ɪ/ and /i:/ sit seat - Minimal Pair /ɒ/ and /əʊ/ not note - Minimal Pair /æ/ and /e/ bad bed - Minimal Pair /æ/ and /ʌ/ bat but - Minimal Pair /æ/ and /ɑ:/ had hard - Minimal Pair /əʊ/ and /ɔ:/ so saw - Minimal Pair /e/ and /eɪ/ wet wait - Minimal Pair /əʊ/ and /aʊ/ know now - Minimal Pair /ɑ:/ and /ɜ:/ fast first - Minimal Pair /e/ and /ɪ/ desk disk [CONSONANT SOUNDS] - Minimal Pair /b/ and /v/ berry very - Minimal Pair final /s/ and /z/ bus buzz - Minimal Pair /n/ and /ŋ/ thin thing - Minimal Pair /l/ and /r/ alive arrive - Minimal Pair /ʧ/ and /t/ catch cat - Minimal Pair /s/ and /ʃ/ sea she - Minimal Pair /s/ and /θ/ sink think - Minimal Pair /ð/ and /z/ with whizz - Minimal Pair /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ cheap jeep - Minimal Pair /tʃ/ and /ʃ/ chair share - Minimal Pair /d/ and /ð/ day they - Minimal Pair /t/ and /θ/ tree three - Minimal Pair final /k/ and /g/ back bag - Minimal Pair final /ŋk/ and /ŋ/ think thing THE SILENT WAY METHOD --------------------- The objective of The Silent Way Method of language teaching is for students to work as independent language learners. The teacher speaks very little when using this method. A pointer is used by the teacher to help guide the class as they vocalize the sounds. In order to use this method some specific materials are required. ### PRINCIPLES OF THE SILENT WAY METHOD - Sounds seen as the most basic element. - Silence is a tool → autonomy, initiative. - Teachers play the role of helpers. - Learning is transferring what one knows to new contexts. - Feedback is seen as an interference to the development of student's own criteria. - Attention is a priority. - Syllabus made of linguistic structures, which are recycled constantly. ### STRUCTURE FEEDBACK Students tell the teacher what they have learnt and what thigs they can improve ### Techniques in the Silent Way Method - Sound-colour charts - Teacher's silence. - Peer correction - Rods - Self-correction gestures - Word Charts - Fidel Charts - Structured Feedback Suggestedia ----------- It was developed by Georgi Lozano. The human brains could process great quantities of material if given the right conditions for learning which are state of relaxation. ### Principle - Physical surroundings and atmosphere of classroom are vital factors in making sure that students feel comfortable and confident. - Teachers should act as partners to their students, participating in activities such as games and songs \"naturally\" and \"genuinely\". - Vocabulary is emphasized. The success of the method often focus on the large number of words that can be acquired. - Grammar is dealt with explicitly but minimally. - It also promotes various techniques, including art and music, in teaching languages. - Native language translation is used to make the meaning of the dialogue clear - Errors are corrected gently, with the teacher using a soft voice ### Video What is she doing? The teacher read the dialog with relaxing music, disconnect from the classroom environment. A lot of repetition as well. It is very predictable and that is why can be boring. ### TECHNIQUES - Classroom set-up (bright and cheerful) - Peripheral Learning (posters) - Positive Suggestion: direct (what the teacher says) and indirect (through the texts and materials. For example, a dialogue entitled, 'To want to is to be able to') - Choose a New Identity (name, profession, etc) - Role-play (students pretend temporarily that they are someone else and to perform in the target language as if they were that person) - First Concert: (dramatic reading by the teacher, synchronized in intonation with the music; the music is classical; the early Romantic period is suggested) - Second Concert (at the end of the class; students listen as the teacher reads the dialogue at normal speed with the pre-Classical or Baroque music. Primary Activation (playful rereading the dialogue out loud; for example, the first group, sadly; the next, angrily; the last, cheerfully. - Creative Adaptation (using the new material spontaneously through singing, dancing, dramatizations, and games) Total Physical Response ----------------------- Developed by James Asher (San Jose State University, California). SL is parallel to child first language acquisition. The role of affective factors in language learning (reduction of learners' stress). The nucleus: a verb in the imperative. ### TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE PRINCIPLES - Built around coordination of speech and language. - The power of the body is a mediator for understanding - The role of affective factors in language learning (reduction of learners' stress). - Involves game-like movements to reduce learner stress and facilitate learning. - Verb in the imperative form, "as the central linguistic motif around which language use and learning are organized" (Richards, & Rodgers, 2001, p. 73). - Grammar is taught inductively - Content is determined by the teacher ### Total physical response. "Speech directed to young children consists primarily of commands, which children respond to physically before they begin to produce verbal responses" (Richards, & Rodgers, 2001, p. 73). Community Language Learning (CLL) --------------------------------- Developed by Charles A. Curran, a specialist in counselling and a professor of psychology. CLL represents the use of Counselling Learning theories to teaching languages. The basic procedures of CLL can thus be seen as derived from the counsellor--client relationship. Curran found that adults often feel threatened by a new learning situation. Curran believed that a way to deal with the fears of students is for teachers to become language counsellors. ### Principles - The teacher 'counsels' the students. - Teacher considers their students as 'whole persons.' Whole person learning means that teachers take into account not only their students' intellect, but they also have some understanding of the relationship among students' feelings, physical reactions, instinctive protective reactions, and desire to learn. - Language is for communication. - The students' native language is used to make the meaning clear and to build a bridge from the known to the unknown. - Teachers correct student´s errors in a nonthreatening way. - Building a relationship with and among students is very important. - Developing a community among the class members builds trust and can help to reduce the threat of the new learning situation. Cooperation, not competition, is encouraged. - In the beginning stages, the 'syllabus' is generated primarily by the students. Students are more willing to learn when they have created the material themselves ### Techniques in the CLL Method Recording Student Conversations 1. Students are asked to have a conversation using their native language or a language common to the group. 2. After each native language utterance or use of a gesture, the teacher translates what the student says or acts out into the target language. 3. The teacher gives the students the target language translation in appropriatesized chunks. 4. Each chunk is recorded, giving students a final recording with only the target language on it. Transcription (teacher transcribes the students' recorded target language conversation) Reflective Listening 1. Students relax and listen to their own voices speaking the target language on the recording 2. Teacher reads the transcript while the students simply listen, with their eyes open or shut 3. Students mouth the words as the teacher reads the transcript. Human Computer 1. Student chooses some part of the transcript to practice pronouncing. 2. Teacher, following the student's lead, repeats the phrase as often as the student wants to practice it. 3. Teacher does not correct the student's mispronunciation in any way. 4. It is through the teacher's consistent manner of repeating the word or phrase clearly that the student self-corrects as she tries to imitate the teacher's model. Small Group Tasks (For example, making new sentences with the words on the transcript) 1. Small groups allow students to get to know each other better 2. This can lead to the development of a community among class members Communicative Language Teaching ------------------------------- Focuses on knowledge of the language (linguistic forms, meanings, and functions), social rules and the context. Teacher=facilitator of communication. Students=communicators. Functional syllabus - organizing language teaching content around communicative functions like inviting, requesting, agreeing, and apologizing. A variety of forms can be used to accomplish a single function. Focuses on the communicative purposes of language rather than just grammar. Errors are tolerated. Dual focus on accuracy and fluency. ### Characteristics of communicative language teaching (CLT): 1. Language learning is learning to communicate -- real-life communication is sought 2. Communicative competence is the desired goal (i.e. the ability to use language to communicate successfully) 3. Meaning is central 4. Learning activities are selected according to how well they engage the learner in meaningful and authentic language (rather than merely mechanical practice of language patterns) ### Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Activities that are truly communicative, according to Morrow (Johnson and Morrow 1981), have three features in common: - Information gap An information gap exists when one person in an exchange knows something the other person does not. - Choice In communication, the speaker has a choice of what she will say and how she will say it. - Feedback A speaker can evaluate whether or not her purpose has been achieved based upon the information she receives from her listener. \< \> 6 Accomplish a goal Communication Authentic language meaningful communication  POSITIVE: 1.Students are motivated by useful language 2. Feedback is immediate 3. Cooperation is encouraged 4. All four skills are emphasized which will catch different types of learners at different stages in their learning journey 5. Culture is forefront because social context is key to bring meaning to utterances NEGATIVE: 1. Challenging to balance real life language with controlled exercises 2. It\'s easy to slip into an indirect approach with no focus on rules and forms 3. It can be difficult for non-native language teachers to use CLT 4. Finding authentic materials is harder for lower levels. ### Techniques in the CLT Method - Authentic Materials - Scrambled Sentences The students are given a passage (a text) in which the sentences are in a scrambled order. - Language Games - Picture Strip Story For example, one student in a small group was given a strip story. She/He showed the first picture of the story to the other members of her group and asked them to predict what the second picture would look like. ### Techniques in the CLT Method **Role-play** Very structured (for example, the teacher tells the students who they are and what they should say) Less structured way (for example, the teacher tells the students who they are, what the situation is, and what they are talking about, but the students determine what they will say). **Paragraph Pass** STORY: First...(paragraph) Second......(paragraph) Next......(paragraph) Last......(paragraph) In groups, write your story. Remember it should be fun and meaningful. We will choose the best one. Task-based Language Teaching ---------------------------- Tasks" as central in planning and teaching. -- A task is an activity or goal that is carried out where the target language is used to achieve an outcome -- for example, as finding a solution to a puzzle, reading a map and giving directions, making a telephone call, writing a letter, etc. - It draws on several principles of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT.) ### TBLT METHOD PRINCIPLES Language is for communicating and for 'doing.' The class activities have a perceived purpose and a clear outcome. Culture is not explicitly dealt with although certain tasks might have a cultural focus. Depending on the nature of the task, any of the four skills can be utilized Focus on form is essential to students' learning. Error correction is done through recasts or modeling or by giving brief grammar explanations. Public presentation encourages students to work on accuracy and organization, as well as meaning. ### TBLT METHOD PRINCIPLES LEARNER ROLES: 1) group participant; 2) monitor; 3) risk-taker and innovator. TEACHER ROLES: 1) selector and sequencer of tasks; 2) preparing learners for tasks, 3) conscious-raising (focus on form) THE ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS: 1) pedagogic materials; 2) realia (newspapers, television, the internet) ### Task categories (Willis, 1996): - Listing - Ordering and sorting - Comparing - Problem solving - Sharing personal experiences - Creative tasks Pica, Kanagy, and Falodun (1993) ### acc. to the type of interaction: - Jigsaw tasks - Information-gap tasks - Problem-solving tasks - Decision-making tasks - Opinion exchange tasks **What you and your students should do at each stage of a task:** - Brainstorming - Pictures - Sample - Clear instructions - Steps and check list to follow CLIL ---- ### What is CLILC CLIL: Content Language Integrated Learning. 'A simple definition of what can be called the new educational paradigm in Europe, could well be: in content and language integrated approaches to education, content subjects such as history or physics are taught through the medium of a second or foreign language. This language is a target language (TL) other than the main language of the learners.' (Dafouz, 3). Content and Language are interconnected: - Language is used to learn as well as to communicate. - It is the subject matter which determines the language needed to learn. ### Madrid community - 2005 EU recommends CLIL to be adopted as the major methodology to teach English. - 2004-05 -- the Community of Madrid Regional Board of Education began its bilingual programme - Initially: 26 Primary schools - 2023-2024: 372 schools (404 -- primary and secondary state schools, 196 state high schools, and 223 -- state financed schools) - Method: CLIL (the proposed objective is to learn and acquire knowledge regardless of the language used) Main Features: Start in 1st grade of Primary. - Min. 30% in English. - Compulsory subjects in English: Science, Social and Cultural Studies. Except Math, Spanish Language and Culture other subjects may be taught in English. - Teacher training: necessary language qualifications (there is a salary supplement). - Bilingual Programme Coordinator. - A twin school. ### FRAMEWORK Content in CLIL will depend on the context of the learning institution: for example, elements taken directly from a national curriculum, a project that brings together different aspects of the curriculum. Could also be thematic, cross-curricular, interdisciplinary. - Communication -- learning language and 'using language' (for example, in authentic interactions) - Cognition - engagement in higher-order thinking and understanding, problem solving, accepting challenges and reflecting on them. - Culture -- awareness and understanding of different cultures - ### 4Cs Framework: Content **Curricular** - Natural Science - Social Science - PE - Music - Arts **Extra-curricula** - After-school activities - Immersion programmes - Summer camps - Transdisciplinary Projects - Workshops (Theatre, Story-telling, etc.) ### 4Cs Framework: Communication 'Assuming that in CLIL settings it is necessary for learners to progress systematically in both their content learning and using, \..., then using language to learn it is as important as learning learning to use language -- both are requirements? (Coyle, 35) - Language of (content-obligatory language): terminology, unknown grammar, specific language (e.g. Language of Comparison) - Language for (content-compatible language): revision, language for group interactions, language for projects - Language through (unpredicatable): how to use a dictionary, consult web sites, et ### 4Cs Framework: cognition CULTURE AND COMMUNITY **What is the role of culture in CLIL?** Cultural patterns, customs, and ways of life are expressed in language: culture specific world views are reflected in language... Language and culture interact so that world views among cultures differ, and that language used to express that world view may be relative and specific to that view. (Brown, 1980:138) Globalization: new mentality. (e.g. pollution, terrorism, etc.). Global citizenship. Language is a social phenomenon. It is a tool to interpret the world. Thinking and culture are constructed through interaction. Language defines culture. Meaningful interaction in the classroom with peers, teachers and resources in and through the vehicular language. From social awareness to the knowledge of one's own culture to intercultural understanding. **Features:** 1. Students feel that being members of a learning community is enriching. 2. Students have the self-confidence and skills to work within a group and the local community, balancing personal interests with those of others. 3. Students can define their role within the classroom, the local and the global context. ### CLIL PRINCIPLES General objective: to learn a content of a subject through a vehicular language, the development of communicative competence ◦ Specific objectives: according to the 4 C's. - Language skills: Listening is a normal input activity, vital for language learning. - Reading, using meaningful material, is the major source of input. - Speaking focuses on fluency. Accuracy is seen as subordinate. Writing is a series of lexical activities through which grammar is recycled. Techniques: jigsaw, debates, role-plays, problem-solving, experiments, projects. ◦ Teacher's Role: facilitator of knowledge Students' role: active learning, life-long learning, autonomy in learning. Typical grouping: pairs and teams. The role of didactic materials: connection to the internet, digital whiteboard, textbook, posters with Language for and of, graphic organizers, etc. **TYPES OF METHOD READING** Neuroscience ============ ### Neuroscience definition Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system. The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, and networks of sensory and motor nerve cells, called neurons, throughout the body. Neuroscience aims to understand how the nervous system works to produce and regulate emotion, thought, behaviour, and critical bodily functions, including breathing and keeping the heart beating. Neuroscientists study the nervous system on many different levels. They examine molecules, nerve cells, nerve networks, and brain structure, individually and collectively, and how these components interact to perform different activities. These scientists study how a typical nervous system develops and functions, as well as disorders and diseases that cause problems with how the nervous system grows or works. Ramon y Cajal, the father of modern neuroscience and the first Spaniard to win a scientific Nobel price. ### Key concepts in neuroscience #### Neurons Neurons (also called neurones or nerve cells) are the fundamental units of the brain and nervous system, the cells responsible for receiving sensory input from the external world, for sending motor commands to our muscles, and for transforming and relaying the electrical signals at every step in between. More than that, their interactions define who we are as people. Having said that, our roughly 100 billion neurons do interact closely with other cell types, broadly classified as glia (these may outnumber neurons, although it's not really known). The creation of new neurons in the brain is called neurogenesis, and this can happen even in adults. #### Synapses The space between the end of a nerve cell and another cell. Nerve impulses are usually carried to the neighbouring cell by chemicals called neurotransmitters, which are released by the nerve cell and are taken up by another cell on the other side of the synapse. The neighbouring cell may be another nerve cell, a muscle cell, or a gland cell. #### Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters are often referred to as the body's chemical messengers. They are the molecules used by the nervous system to transmit messages between neurons, or from neurons to muscles. Communication between two neurons happens in the synaptic cleft (the small gap between the synapses of neurons). Here, electrical signals that have travelled along the axon are briefly converted into chemical ones through the release of neurotransmitters, causing a specific response in the receiving neuron. A neurotransmitter influences a neuron in one of three ways: excitatory, inhibitory or modulatory. An excitatory transmitter promotes the generation of an electrical signal called an action potential in the receiving neuron, while an inhibitory transmitter prevents it. Whether a neurotransmitter is excitatory or inhibitory depends on the receptor it binds to. Neuromodulators are a bit different, as they are not restricted to the synaptic cleft between two neurons, and so can affect large numbers of neurons at once. Neuromodulators therefore regulate populations of neurons, while also operating over a slower time course than excitatory and inhibitory transmitters. Most neurotransmitters are either small amine molecules, amino acids, or neuropeptides. There are about a dozen known small-molecule neurotransmitters and more than 100 different neuropeptides, and neuroscientists are still discovering more about these chemical messengers. These chemicals and their interactions are involved in countless functions of the nervous system as well as controlling bodily functions. #### Part of the brain #### Brain stem Your brainstem connects your brain to your spinal cord. It sits near the bottom of your brain. It helps regulate vital body functions that you don't have to think about, like breathing and your heart rate. Your brainstem also helps with your balance, coordination and reflexes. It's part of your central nervous system and has three parts that work together. Each part does a specific job to help you adapt to your environment, move and function. **What is the function of the brainstem?** Your brainstem sends messages back and forth between your brain and other parts of your body. It regulates many involuntary actions --- functions your body performs automatically, like: - Balance. - Blood pressure. - Breathing. - Eye movements. - Facial movements and sensations. - Hearing. - Heart rate. - Sleep and wakefulness. - Swallowing. - Taste. #### Neurolinguistics Neurolinguistics, the study of the neurological mechanisms underlying the storage and processing of language. Although it has been satisfactorily determined that the language centre is in the left hemisphere of the brain in right-handed people, controversy remains concerning whether individual aspects of language are correlated with different specialized areas of the brain. One kind of research carried on in this field is the study of aphasia, a condition of the brain in which language ability is impaired or destroyed. Temporary aphasia has been induced by electrically stimulating the cortex of conscious patients to determine the location of the various functions of language. Although very general centres of language have been proposed, it seems that there are no highly specialized centres. Several cases have been reported of patients who, after having their left hemisphere of the brain removed, adapted in the right hemisphere the language function that the left hemisphere had had. In general, however, though progress is being made in this field, very little is known for certain about the neurological aspects of language. The Education Revolution: Applying Brain Science to Improve Teaching and Learning --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- By bridging the gap between neuroscience and education, neurodidactics offers the potential to revolutionize how we teach and learn. It transforms education through personalized learning, improved teaching, and reduced academic stress. It empowers educators to make informed decisions about instructional strategies, classroom design, and assessment practices. What are emotions? ------------------ Emotions are reactions that human beings experience in response to events or situations. Emotions are the functional states of the brain that provide causal explanations of certain complex behaviours. **Plutchik (1980)** proposed eight primary emotional dimensions: - joy vs. sadness - anger vs. fear - trust vs. disgust - surprise vs. anticipation These emotions can then be combined to create others, such as happiness + anticipation = excitement. Feelings are personal, emotions are social, and affect is tripersonal According to Shouse (2005): Affect is the \'non-conscious experience of intensity\' felt through the body, before we name and categorise it. Feelings are how we understand and label our sensations, based on our own experiences. Emotions are how we project these socially (through facial expressions etc.) Emotions can therefore be manipulated to fit with social norms. **NEURODIDACTIC READING** Activity on Schumann´s Appraisals. -------------------------------------------------------- Act. 1 Look at this list of activities from a language classroom. Imagine you are a teacher announcing each activity to the class. What emotional reactions might you anticipate from different learners? What might different learners respond differently to these activities? 1. singing a song in the target language novelty, intrinsic pleasantness. 2. a short vocabulary quiz about fashion-related language novelty, coping potential, self-compatibility. 3. watching a clip from a news programme in the target language Cooping potential, novelty, intrinsic pleasantness. 4. individual presentations on famous actors novelty, intrinsic pleasantness. 5. a role play about a business meeting. coping potential and self-compatibility 6. reading poetry in the target language novelty, intrinsic pleasantness, coping potential. Recent developments in language teaching ======================================== Mindfulness and social emotional teaching. ------------------------------------------ \*Check the reading\* Multilingualism and translating ------------------------------- DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MULTILINGUALISM & PLURILINGUALISM MULTILINGUALISM is the term used to describe the coexistence of several languages within the same social group or territory -. PLURILINGUALISM is the term used to define a person who is able to communicate in several languages (usually three or more). TRANSLANGUAGING What is translanguaging? Check video on YouTube Evaluating multiple language skills / modes of communication CEFR Companion Volume the CEFR Companion Volume introduces four modes of communication: 1. Reception 2. Production 3. Interaction 4. Mediation Modes of communication and language skills **Reception:** This mode involves understanding language through listening and reading. **Production:** This mode involves producing language through speaking and writing. **Interaction:** This mode involves speaking and listening to communicate with others. **Mediation**: This mode can involve all four skills to facilitate communication between people who do not share a common language. Mediation ---------  Technology integration in efl teaching -------------------------------------- 1. Digital literacy: the ability to locate, evaluate, and produce clear information across a range of media platforms 2. Games 2.1 Game based learning (The learning experience itself is a game: Video games, simulations, virtual worlds, etc.) 2.2. Gamification (Game elements are added to existing learning activities: Point systems, badges, progress bar, etc) 3. Technology based tools (Digital stories, quizlets, padlets, etc.) 4. Technology enhanced activities 5. Classroom management tools, apps 6. Flipped classroom (students learn new material at home and then apply that in class) 7. Blended learning (face-to-face instruction with online learning) 8. Social media 9. VR, AR 10. AI ### Artificial intelligence Artificial Intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing the way English as a Foreign Language (EFL) is taught and learned. Ways AI is being integrated into EFL education 1. Personalized Learning: - Adaptive Learning Platforms: AI-powered platforms can tailor lessons to individual learners\' needs, paces, and learning styles. - Real-time Feedback: AI can provide immediate feedback on learners\' written and spoken work, helping them improve their accuracy and fluency. 2\. Intelligent Tutoring Systems: - Virtual Tutors: AI-powered virtual tutors can engage learners in interactive conversations, answer questions, and provide explanations. - Practice Drills: These systems can generate customized practice exercises based on learners\' strengths and weaknesses Ways AI is being integrated into EFL education 3.Language Assessment: - Automated Essay Scoring: AI can accurately assess written work, providing detailed feedback on grammar, vocabulary, and coherence. - Speech Recognition: AI can analyse learners\' spoken language, identifying areas for improvement in pronunciation, intonation, and fluency. 4\. Content Creation: - Automated Content Generation: AI can generate engaging learning materials, such as quizzes, flashcards, and reading passages. - Translation: AI-powered translation tools can help create multilingual learning materials.