PSYCH 3513 Introduction To Cognitive Neuroscience PDF

PSYCH 3513 Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Dr. Brian M. Siefke, Ph.D.  About me: Ph.D. Cognitive Psychology: OSU August, 2017 Dissertation: The formation of episodic memory: How context change shapes distinctiveness M.A. Cognitive Psychology: OSU 2013 B.S. c...

PSYCH 3513 Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Dr. Brian M. Siefke, Ph.D.  About me: Ph.D. Cognitive Psychology: OSU August, 2017 Dissertation: The formation of episodic memory: How context change shapes distinctiveness M.A. Cognitive Psychology: OSU 2013 B.S. cum laude: Psychology, General Science Bowling Green State University 2010 Marvin Minsky The Society of Mind  Cognitive Neuroscience Cognition: the process of knowing (i.e. what arises from awareness, perception, and reasoning) Neuroscience: the study of the nervous system What is “Cognitive neuroscience”? How does the brain enable the mind?? Cognitive functioning: Brain = Different parts of the brain do different things You are given a hunk of biological tissue that is known to think, remember, attend, solve problems, love, be angry, play games, write novels… …and countless other things! …Now figure out how it works!   David Marr (1982): 1. Computational level, the goal  What is the purpose of the behavior (i.e., the problem)  In computers, what does this program do? 2. Algorithmic level, the method, the “recipe.”  What are the processes, steps, etc. (i.e., the strategy)? 3. Implementation level, the substrate  What runs the algorithm? Neural structures, silicon, etc.  In computers, e.g., windows or OS X.  How is this done by networks of neurons? Do we need all three levels to understand behavior?  WHY did a behavior evolve?  HOW did it promote survival & reproduction?  Earth formed = 4.5 bya  Biological life appears = 3.8 bya  Primate brain = 34-23 mya (Ogliocene epoch)  Larger brain of great apes = 23-7 mya  Human lineage diverges from primate ancestors = 5-7 mya  Human brains = 100 kya  Humans develop theories of causation and human motivation  19th century: scientific method fully deployed to study the brain  Where is the “seat of the mind”?  Aristotle (384-322BC) heart is the seat of intelligence brain cools blood Descartes (1620s) “Dualism”: mind and body are separate (mind immortal, body physical and mortal) Animal spirits interact with the body through the pineal gland; spirits flowing through ventricles Baruch Spinoza (1650s) Dual aspect theory: mental and physical are part of the same substance Each comprises an "aspect” Brain as the seat of thought Hippocrates, Plato (seat of reason), Galen Willis (1650)  Philosophers 1800 – Phrenologists, localizationist manifesto 1820 – Broca’s (1861) paper on language localization 1840 – 1860 – Fritsch & Hitzig (1870) stimulation of dog’s cortex and movement EEG developed as a research tool (Berger, 1929) 1920 – Discovery of action potentials (Hodgkin & Huxley, 1938), 1940 – enables single cell recordings Structural imaging – CT (Hounsfield, 1973), MRI (Lauterbur, 1973) 1960 – in vivo blood flow measure in humans, enables PET (Reivich, 1979) 1980 – First TMS study (Barker et al., 1985) 2000 – BOLD response, enabling fMRI development (Ogawa et al., 1990)  If the brain is the seat of the mind, how does it work?  How does it achieve perception, behavior, thought, consciousness?  How is the brain organized? ▪ Is it a single homogenous organ? ▪ Do different parts of the brain do different things? ▪ How do different parts “talk” to each other? Early cognitive neuroscience  Before modern-day neuroimaging techniques, scientists had to rely on making inferences from observations of lesions and their effect on behavior.  This led to a divide into two main views:  Phrenology  Gall and Spurzheim (1810s) ▪ 35 areas (each with different functions) ▪ If a person used a cognitive function more than others, that part of the brain would grow, causing a bump on the skull. ▪ “Anatomical personology”: analyzing shape of skull to describe personality.  Jean Pierre Flourens Removed localized portions of cortex and noted their effects on bird behaviors. “ All sensations, all perceptions, and all volitions occupy the same seat in these cerebral organs. The faculty of sensation, percept and volition is then essentially one faculty.” Aggregate field theory: whole brain participates in behavior Big Debate: Localization verus equipotentiality Skull palpators versus bird-brain ablators  Clinical observations supporting localization (Brain lesions  selective impairments)  Phineas Gage (1848): frontal damage altered personality, decision-making  Broca’s area (1861) = speech production  Wernicke’s area (1876) = speech comprehension  HM (1953): Hippocampus = memory  Damage to areas causing face blindness, object agnosias, attention deficits, action impairments, etc.  Cytoarchitectonics (“cellular architecture”)  Brodmann (1909)  Based purely off morphological properties of neurons  Correspond with functional differences between areas? Sometimes! (e.g. areas 17,18,19 = different visual areas)  Functional localization (e.g. fMRI)  Kanwisher (1997): Fusiform Face Area  Defining brain regions based on function, not structure  Hughlings Jackson (late 1800s) Proposed experiments to test observations Characteristic progression of seizures now called “Jackson seizures” originate in motor cortex Topographic organization of cortex specifically epilepsy Less extreme type of localization Localization of symptoms, not function Based on interconnectedness of brain areas Similar point to Claude Bernard, French Physiologist (1855) “If it is possible to dissect all the parts of the body, to isolate them in order to study them in their structure, form and connections it is not the same in life, where all parts cooperate at the same time in a common aim. An organ does not live on its own, one could often say it did not exist anatomically, as the boundary established is sometimes purely arbitrary. What lives, what exists, is the whole, and if one studies all the parts of any mechanisms separately, one does not know the way they work. In the same way, anatomically, we take the organism apart, but we cannot grasp the whole. This whole can only be seen when the organs are in motion.”   German neuroanatomists (early 1900s)  Brodmann, Nissl, Von Bonin and Bailey, Von Economo  And others Camillo Golgi (syncytium)  Golgi, Cajal, Purkinje, Freud, von Helmholtz  Neuron doctrine  At least some form of localization agreed upon. Santiago Ramon y Cajal (neuron doctrine)  The most basic functional unit of the brain is the single nerve cell, the neuron.  Ramón y Cajal used Camillo Golgi’s staining methods to bring out differences in nerve cells. (1888).   Today:  At least some form of localization agreed upon.  Major debate between extent of specificity ▪ Domain specificity (modules) vs. Distributed Processing ▪ Innate specialization vs. Experience driven ▪ Nature vs. Nurture in specific disorders (e.g., autism & face processing) Dr. Nancy Kanwisher TED Talk: http://video.mit.edu/watch/nancy-kanwisher-a-neural-portrait- of-the-human-mind-28929/  Rationalism vs. Empiricism:  Rationalism = all knowledge could be gained through the use of reason alone. ▪ Truth == intellectual, NOT sensory ▪ (Re: Descartes, Spinoza, Leibnitz) ▪ Rationalism is NOT the same as logic!   Rationalism vs. Empiricism:  Empiricism = all knowledge comes from sensory experience & the brain begins as a “blank slate.”  (Re: T. Hobbes, J. Locke, D. Hume, J. S. Mill)  Associationism = ideas interact & become associated into a knowledge system. ▪ Hermann Ebbinghaus!  complex psychological processes (like memory!) could be analyzed.  The Law of Effect  Behaviors that are followed by something pleasant or desired are likely to be repeated.  Behaviors that are followed by something unwanted are less likely to be repeated.  Results of behavior are the mechanism for establishing an adaptive response.  Rejected Ebbinghaus and the idea of mental processes. Psychology was objective only if it is based on observable behavior.  behaviorist-associationist psychology dominated: sensory information is merely data on which pre-existing mental structures act. (Behaviorism)  Fritsch and Hitzig (1870) Electrical stimulation in a dog to produce movement  David Ferrier (1876) Used both stimulation and ablation to localize both sensory and motor functions Created a “scientific phrenology” Experimented with LOTS of animals Dog cortical map obtained by Ferrier  Wilder Penfield (1928) treated epilepsy by surgically destroying neurons that produce seizures.  Stimulated parts of in vivo brains with electrical probes and observed results.  Created topographical maps of sensory & motor cortices!  Case of HM (Henry Molaison, 1926-2008):  had hippocampus (temporal lobe) removed to prevent seizures.   Canadian neuropsychologist who was one of the most influential theorists for cognitive science and neuroscience.  He clarified the notion of the cell assembly and proposed the best- known learning rule for neural networks. Donald Hebb, 1904-1985  Hebbian learning: “Neurons that fire together, wire together.”  Student of Hebb who provided anatomical and physiological proof of multiple memory systems.  Sometimes referred to as "the founder of neuropsychology.”  Worked with H.M.  Born in 1918, and STILL WORKING!  Computer processing languages using logic algorithms  Neural organization considered like parallel computer processing  Artificial intelligence  Signal detection theory applied to perception  George Miller’s “Magical Number 7 ± 2” describing information limitations of the mind  Noam Chomsky’s idea that the sequential predictability of speech arises from grammatical rules, NOT probability.  means that Behaviorism cannot explain how language is learned!  Angelo Mosso recorded pulsations in the brain; noticed that pulsations correlated with function.  Invented ‘human circulation balance’ E = mc2 ???  Fulton (left) and Kety noticed visual function correlated with ‘bruit’ in patient Walter K (right). (sound) of the arteriovenous malformation enveloping the visual cortex.  RADIOLOGICAL IMAGING! William Oldendort (1961) followed on the work of Alessandro Vallebona (1930s) to develop the concept of CT Math provided by Godfrey Hounsfield Funding provided by the Beatles  BLOOD FLOW IN THE BRAIN CT was great for anatomical detail, but revealed little about function Positron Emission Tomograhy (PET)  BLOOD FLOW IN THE BRAIN PET provided functional data, but requires injection of radioactive isotopes Could we measure blood flow directly? fMRI is born by relying on the fact that cerebral blood flow and neuronal activation are coupled: When a brain area is in use, blood flow to that region increases Seiji Ogawa FMRI  What does learning about the brain tell us about the mind? Does it help us describe behavior? Does it help us predict behavior? What can be gained, from a psychological standpoint? There’s more to cognitive neuroscience than “localization!”