Ch. 7 Army Ops in Maritime Environment PDF

Chapter 7 Army Operations in Maritime Environments The basic objectives and principles of war do not change. The final objective in war is the destruction of the enemy’s capacity and will to fight, and thereby force him to accept the imposition of the...

Chapter 7 Army Operations in Maritime Environments The basic objectives and principles of war do not change. The final objective in war is the destruction of the enemy’s capacity and will to fight, and thereby force him to accept the imposition of the victor’s will. This submission has been accomplished in the past by pressure in and from each of the elements of land and sea, and during World War I and II, in and from the air as well. The optimum pressure is exerted through that absolute control obtained by actual physical occupation. This optimum is obtainable only on land where physical occupation can be consolidated and maintained. Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, United States Navy This chapter describes Army operations in a predominantly maritime environment. It begins with a discussion of the unique characteristics and challenges posed by maritime regions. It continues with a discussion of maritime planning considerations, and it concludes with a description of a potential operational approach for a maritime environment. SECTION I – OVERVIEW OF THE MARITIME ENVIRONMENT 7-1. Previous conflicts have proven the critical role of land forces in maritime Although the Pacific Theater of World War II is often associated with dramatic battles fought by U.S. Navy and theaters. In almost all cases it is land that Marine Corps, U.S. Army forces provided considerable makes a maritime area important to a combat power to the theater. Most of the 22 divisions that combatant commander. Land masses near served in the Pacific endured 100 to 300 days of continuous or surrounded by water create maritime combat during the island-hopping campaign. Several units choke points, enable force projection in and spent over 500 days in the war against Imperial Japanese out of maritime areas, and contain the forces. The Americal Division spent over 600 days in combat. Casualties for Army forces exceeded 85,000 killed, captured, majority of the world's population. The wounded, or missing in action. The 77th Infantry Division ultimate objective of conflict is typically not alone sustained 9,212 casualties in 208 days of combat. control over vast expanses of open water, During battles that included Guadalcanal, New Guinea, the but rather the land and people who control Philippines, and Okinawa, Army forces provided both combat it. Planning and training for the unique power and critical sustainment to a complex campaign that spanned from Alaska to Australia. considerations of operations in these environments is critical, as is an integrated planning approach with the rest of the joint force. A maritime operational environment adds coordination and synchronization requirements for Army echelons that typically operate and train in land operational environments. Army and joint force planning must reflect an understanding of the dynamic nature of the threats and constraints to land forces in maritime regions. Army movement and maneuver between land masses is almost entirely dependent on joint capabilities. Control of critical land masses is essential to the sustainment and protection of joint operations in a maritime operational environment. This interdependence has been historically crucial to success during armed conflicts against peer threats in maritime theaters, and it continues to be crucial in the foreseeable future. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MARITIME ENVIRONMENT 7-2. Habitable land masses vary in size and geology. They include land masses as large as Australia to small islets that make up larger atoll systems, such as the Marianas islands in Micronesia or Alaska’s Aleutian Islands chain. Regardless of their size, not all islands are suitable for extended occupation without externally 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 7-1 Chapter 7 provided water and other supplies. While most islands are natural, formed by tectonic or volcanic action, manmade islands created for military and other purposes are also found within certain regions, such as the South China Sea. Maritime land masses include a variety of environmental conditions. Islands throughout Southeast Asia are predominantly jungle and savanna regions. Islands throughout the Baltic, Arctic, and sub- Arctic regions may experience prolonged periods of extreme cold weather. Mountainous terrain can be found on jungle, Arctic, and desert islands. Each island can contain unique environmental planning considerations that can affect the way Army forces are resourced and employed. (See ATP 3-90.97 for more information on cold weather environments. See ATP 3-90.98 for more information on operations in jungle environments. See ATP 3-90.99 for more information on operations in desert environments.) 7-3. Currently, 22 nations in the world are recognized as archipelagic states, and these unique maritime nations can include several cultures, religions, languages, and geopolitical histories within their own territorial boundaries. Regional influences, littoral urbanization, external actors, regional geopolitical perspectives, and local economic conditions may change from island to island, even when those islands comprise a single country. Commanders and staffs must understand these complex factors to influence outcomes in the human and information dimensions of an operational environment. Corps, divisions, or even brigades may have an area of operations (AO) that spans several islands, each with a unique culture and history. 7-4. In a predominantly maritime environment, any land that can be occupied to attain a physical position of relative advantage by friendly or enemy forces can become key terrain. The largely maritime domains challenge planners to account for operational reach and the impact of space and time on reinforcement of existing forward-stationed forces and allies. The distance between bases throughout the maritime regions hinders mutually supporting operations and sustainment from supporting echelons in the theater. Remoteness and distance increases vulnerability to amphibious raids by enemy special operations forces and attacks from long-range aircraft or missiles, and it increases the risk of physical isolation by air and naval forces. LITTORAL REGIONS 7-5. Maritime environments include littoral regions, divided into two segments: seaward and landward. Seaward segments include the area from open ocean to the shore, which must be controlled to support operations ashore. Landward segments are those areas inland from the shore that can be supported and defended directly from the sea. Maritime littoral regions are divided into five categories: z Enclosed and semi-enclosed seas—bodies of water surrounded by a landmass and connected to either an ocean or another enclosed sea by a connecting body of water, such as a strait. z Islands—single land masses surrounded by a body of water. z Archipelagoes—groups of islands. z Open seas—unenclosed bodies of water, typically outside of territorial boundaries. z Marginal seas—portions of open seas or oceans that bound land masses such as peninsulas, islands, and archipelagos. 7-6. Operations in these environments require information concerning tides in the local area, average wave heights, and daily wind forecasts, as tides and winds may unexpectedly impact wave heights. Tidal flow and currents impact operations for small or shallow draft vessels. Tidal changes can also affect vehicle mobility when crossing unimproved beachheads or operations without causeways or engineer support. Extreme weather plus the corrosive effects of salt water can rapidly degrade the maintenance readiness of equipment already at the extent of long logistics lines of communications. ARCTIC REGION 7-7. The Arctic region is significantly influenced by maritime considerations. The Artic encompasses part of the areas of responsibility of three different geographic combatant commands, eight countries, and all time zones. There are two primary transit routes through the Arctic: the Northwest Passage and the Northern Sea Route. The Arctic is a geopolitically competitive region and a potential area for armed conflict. There are various international partnerships and alliances within the region, with overlapping relationships complicated by international disputes about maritime boundaries. The Arctic presents a harsh and demanding maritime, land, and air environment for military operations. Extreme temperatures, long periods of darkness and 7-2 FM 3-0 01 October 2022  Army Operations in Maritime Environments extended daylight, high latitudes, seasonally changing terrain, and rapidly changing weather patterns define Arctic conditions, and they all have impacts on the operational and mission variables. The variability of the physical terrain and weather exposes military forces and capabilities to increased levels of risk. 7-8. The Arctic is not challenging solely due to extreme cold temperatures. Ground mobility is typically most favorable during the winter months. Summer poses significant challenges for most vehicles moving off road, while the most challenging period is the spring thaw when ground movement becomes impossible across large swaths of territory. Regardless of season, air and sea mobility are critical enablers for military operations. Thawing permafrost affects infrastructure across the region. Lacking the climate moderating effect of the warm Gulf Stream, the North American Arctic hosts a much harsher environment than the European Arctic. The warming of the Arctic has led to longer windows of reduced ice conditions over a larger area. Long-term trends indicate a more consistently navigable Arctic, potentially affecting the mobility of Army and threat forces during armed conflict. 7-9. Operations in the Arctic region get more complicated when roadways, seaports, and airfields can become unusable depending on seasons. The loss or change of sea ice can open new waterways and increase transit through the region. This could require additional forces, equipment capability, and infrastructure investments to secure the U.S. homeland, allied partners and infrastructure, or the northern avenues of approach during armed conflict. CONSIDERATIONS UNIQUE TO THE MARITIME ENVIRONMENT 7-10. Threats to Army forces in a maritime theater include those in any other type of theater. Additionally, commanders and staffs must take into account unique joint and enemy courses of action in planning and executing operations in a maritime environment. JOINT FORCE CONSIDERATIONS IN A MARITIME ENVIRONMENT 7-11. The heavily interdependent nature of joint operations means that the defeat of one part of the joint force puts the other parts at significant risk. The failure of Army forces to retain key terrain or protect air and naval bases while preserving their own combat power could result in the loss of air and maritime superiority, which in turn could lead to the ultimate defeat in detail of unsupported Army forces in an entire area of responsibility (AOR). 7-12. Army forces require a joint common operational picture (COP) of friendly forces and their operations, including those of allies and partners, in all domains. An inaccurate joint or partner COP could cause flawed assumptions and situational understanding that decreases effective decision making. 7-13. As with other environments, planning land operations in maritime environments should address relevant factors affecting friendly and enemy operations. The products and tools typically gathered to plan and portray the unique characteristics of a maritime environment include riverine and coastal navigation charts or tidal reports and observations from local fishing communities. Additional characteristics to consider include— z Coastal terrain and soil compositions. z Commerce and trade along navigable waterways. z Maritime-specific infrastructure. z Navigable bodies of water. z Population densities and variations along shores and near navigable waterways. z Tidal flow, surf conditions, and current directions. z Natural obstacles adjacent to terrain (including sandbars, shoals, mud flats, and dunes). ENEMY COURSES OF ACTION UNIQUE TO THE MARITIME ENVIRONMENT 7-14. Enemy forces have the ability to take multiple actions unique to the maritime environment to hinder joint operations. They use capabilities from all domains to interdict lines of communications between the strategic support area and forward-positioned Army forces, putting forces at risk of isolation and beyond the supporting distance from other joint force elements. Enemy forces target shipping that carries the bulk of 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 7-3 Chapter 7 Army heavy equipment into theater and the pre-positioned equipment already in theater as part of their preclusion and isolation approaches. While Army forces can take measures to protect equipment already in theater, they are dependent upon the other Services for the protection of people, equipment, and supplies in transit. 7-15. Threats may employ asymmetric tactics to reinforce their area denial (AD) approaches throughout a region, Defeating enemy forces before they capitalizing on the vulnerability of isolated friendly locations can generate superior combat power lacking adequate protection. Locations that cannot be and expand lodgments is critical. reinforced or supported by other elements of the joint force are particularly vulnerable. Attacks by enemy special operations and naval forces are difficult for Army forces to detect and counter without proper positioning and preparation. Anticipating possible enemy courses of action in one region that would support a broad theater-wide outcome should drive friendly priorities of planning and preparation. 7-16. Enemy forces may use proxy forces to destabilize regional partners, further delaying Army forces from safely accessing basing and lines of communications. Proxy forces can facilitate enemy reconnaissance, surveillance, and disruption of joint operations. They can also affect access to sea-lanes and airports for transportation, hindering the resupply of island bases, and limiting the ability to reinforce forward-positioned friendly forces through attacks on bases and base clusters. 7-17. Enemy surface-to-surface and surface-to-air fires systems are critical to the layered defense and early warning systems necessary to attack forward-positioned friendly forces with little warning. These systems simultaneously prevent reinforcement or support of those friendly forces. Enemies position robust and integrated air and missile defenses, early warning surveillance radars, and electronic warfare capabilities that range elements of the U.S. joint force put them at risk during competition, crisis, and conflict. Enemy medium range ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, anti-ship missiles, and air and naval forces also put friendly forces at risk. This combination of systems warfare approaches threatens land-based forces even when they do not directly target them, since land-based forces require the support of air and maritime forces for sustainment, early warning, and protection. ARMY-SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS 7-18. Commanders and staffs account for multiple considerations Forward-based Army forces in when planning and executing operations in a maritime range of adversary fires require environment. Counter-reconnaissance by Army forces on an significant hardening for island requires a 360-degree approach to avoid surprise. survivability against enemy ballistic Responding to threats requires highly mobile capabilities that missiles, aircraft, naval fires, and mass effects against enemy forces quickly. Although threats can cyberspace attacks. Forward-based approach from any direction to achieve surprise, there are Army forces can defend critical joint constraints in terms of where enemy forces are able to land during infrastructure when properly an amphibious or air assault and range constraints that might positioned and prepared. cause aircraft to favor certain approaches. Intelligence preparation of the battlefield requires an understanding of air and maritime avenues of approach and their relationship to a particular land mass or grouping of land masses. 7-19. Army forces positioned at existing bases within the range of adversary long-range fires establish primary and alternate survivability positions for themselves while providing air and missile defense (AMD) and local security to airbases and ports. They may also be required to defend against amphibious assaults, and airborne or air assault operations by enemy forces seeking to control a particular land area or destroy critical infrastructure. Army forces operating on islands with austere infrastructure and resources require significant sustainment during prolonged operations. 7-20. Land areas able to accommodate significant military forces in strategically or operationally important areas are scarce in maritime environments, and what is available is already a known point for enemy planners. This makes surveillance of friendly activities simpler, affecting the ability to achieve surprise or avoid being surprised. It also makes the process of enemy observation, information collection, and subsequent targeting 7-4 FM 3-0 01 October 2022  Army Operations in Maritime Environments faster and more effective. The implications, with regard to friendly forces concealing and protecting themselves, are significant. 7-21. The British defeat in Malaya is a historical example of a poorly executed defense at both the operational and tactical levels. It also is an example of a peer threat exploiting superior planning, leadership, and aggressive action across multiple domains to overcome numerical inferiority against a defending force. Faulty Assumptions—Defeat Across Multiple Domains in Malaya On 8 December 1941, Imperial Japanese forces launched the invasion of Malaya from their strongholds in French Indochina. Japanese intelligence suggested that General Yamashita’s 70,000 troops were outnumbered nearly 2 to 1, so he concluded that only a bold, rapidly executed attack with aggressive, well-trained troops would ensure victory. The British Empire was decisively engaged in North Africa, the battle of the Atlantic, and the defense of the home islands. While it deployed additional ground, naval, and air units to Singapore, the combination of time, distance, and demands in other theaters made further reinforcement unlikely. Those forces that arrived before the commencement of hostilities had little time to train or prepare for operations against an opponent of unknown quality in an unfamiliar environment. The allied defense of Malaya rested on several false assumptions. First, allied forces assumed there would be sufficient warning of an attack, which in turn, would allow for adequate air and naval reinforcements. The few major naval reinforcements (the battleship Prince of Wales and battle cruiser Repulse) were sunk, and the aircraft rapidly lost against a qualitatively superior Japanese air arm. The Allies assumed that the dense jungle terrain would impede enemy ground movement and simplify defense of the peninsula; but it actually hindered the defenders more than the Japanese. They assumed the enemy main effort would come from the sea, which was the most heavily fortified part of their defense. It did not. They assumed their air force to be superior to that of the Japanese. It was not. They also assumed that the British and Commonwealth troops were better trained than the Japanese Army. They were not. These beliefs cost the Allies and provided an opportunity for the Japanese forces. The Japanese launched a successful night amphibious assault on the northern coasts of Malaya and advanced south along the eastern coast. They also made simultaneous landings in Thailand, just north of the Malaya border, and sent units south into the interior and along the west coast. The Allies attempted to slow the Japanese advance with prepared positions along the roads and by destroying bridges, but the Japanese repeatedly bypassed or enveloped static positions by moving off the roads and conducting amphibious landings. On 10 December, Japan sank the last major allied naval units and achieved air supremacy. By 27 January 1942, allied forces had retreated across the strait onto the island of Singapore. Japan subsequently invaded Singapore on 7 February and completed its conquest on the 15th. In just over two months, Yamashita’s 25th Army of 70,000 troops decisively defeated a defending force of over 140,000 soldiers at the cost of just under 10,000 casualties. Yamashita’s use of speed, maneuver, and surprise allowed him to dictate the operational tempo of the invasion. He ably exploited opportunities provided by the Japanese air and naval forces while generating his own with aggressive maneuver on the ground. The simultaneous presentation of multiple dilemmas across the air, maritime, and land domains led to the largest surrender of British forces in history. (See figure 7-1 for a map of operations in Malaya.) 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 7-5 Chapter 7 Figure 7-1. Operations in Malaya SECTION II – MARITIME ENVIRONMENT PLANNING AND OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK Amphibious warfare requires the closest practicable cooperation by all the combatant services, both in planning and execution, and a command organization which definitively assigns responsibility for major decisions throughout all stages of the operation... Admiral Henry K. Hewitt 7-22. Planning for operations in maritime environments requires commanders and staffs carefully consider the operational environment. Commanders and staffs need to consider that applying an operational framework in a maritime environment is significantly different than applying an operational framework to a land operation. 7-6 FM 3-0 01 October 2022  Army Operations in Maritime Environments PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS FOR A MARITIME ENVIRONMENT 7-23. Planning for operations on land in maritime environments requires a high level of complex detail to coordinate the movement and landing of troops, equipment, and supplies by air and surface means. The success of Army operations in the maritime environment are uniquely dependent on unity of effort and integrated, collaborative planning with joint headquarters and subordinate echelons. 7-24. The joint force commander (JFC) for major maritime operations is typically a senior naval officer. The JFC ensures unity of effort across the joint force and ensures the task and purpose of Army operations nest with the overall joint operational concept. Despite the physical distances and relative isolation typically associated with land operations in a largely maritime environment, Army commanders must maintain situational understanding through joint collaboration to ensure their operations or activities do not have a negative effect on other operations or units. This includes maintaining situational awareness during movement, which requires direct and continuous integration of Army personnel into the command and control (C2) nodes of Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force units. This may also include integration with multinational amphibious or maritime units. 7-25. Army corps, divisions, and brigades supporting or reporting to JFCs must understand the joint planning process and contribute to it even as they conduct parallel planning using Army processes with their subordinate echelons. This directly contributes to the successful execution of operations across an extended battlefield, where long distances and sporadic network connectivity affect the situational awareness and synchronization of forces. (See JP 5-0 for additional information on planning and execution of the joint planning process.) 7-26. Planning for operations in maritime environments requires collaboration between Army forces and other relevant components of the joint force command and integration across warfighting and joint functions at each echelon. Ideally, planning should be conducted by commanders and their staffs in the same location, which in some cases may be aboard a ship or in the air. When this is not practical, the exchange of liaison officers facilitates planning functions. Planning efforts—particularly in crisis situations—are conducted in parallel and collaboratively across the involved echelons and Services. This is crucial for any assault operation conducted across extended maritime distances. Integrated planning is facilitated by using operational planning teams formed around planners from functional areas that include subordinate and supporting command liaison officers. Aligning Army warfighting function cells with the joint functions enables integrated planning. APPLYING THE OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK 7-27. Applying the operational framework in maritime environments requires commanders and staffs to consider the impacts of maritime surface areas and integration with maritime forces. It also requires a different appreciation about what constitutes deep, close, and rear operations in relation to each other. The physical separation of forces by bodies of water affects considerations of mutual support since many operations are likely to involve noncontiguous AOs. Army echelons may have responsibilities for information collection of maritime surface areas and for providing fires into maritime and littoral regions in support of other Services. Army forces may be required to defend against enemy amphibious assaults, requiring tactical level coordination with Navy and Marine Corps forces. Army forces may also conduct amphibious landings or airborne and air assault operations over water in support of joint operations. Operations that were previously considered close, such as forcible entry, can extend into a deep area based on distance between islands or sea bases. Tactical support areas may be separated by extended distances and require the use of watercraft or other joint capabilities to support tactical level sustainment or tactical maneuver forces to secure sea lines of communications. ASSIGNING A JOINT OPERATIONS AREA WITHIN AN AREA OF RESPONSIBILITY 7-28. The Unified Command Plan designates the AOR. Within that AOR, a larger maritime environment might have several joint operations areas to facilitate C2 and resource prioritization. For example, United States Indo-Pacific Command may designate a JOA for operations in the South China Sea and a JOA for operations in Korea. Both JOAs require unique C2, movement and maneuver, sustainment, intelligence, fires, and protection planning and resources. This also includes the designation of an appropriate land component 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 7-7 Chapter 7 headquarters and staff to facilitate joint integration specific to that JOA and the particular Army operations within it. A JOA is established for operations within an AOR that is specialized or limited in its scope or duration, and a JFC directs military operations as a joint task force (JTF). DESIGNATING A JOINT SECURITY AREA 7-29. Within the JOA, the JFC designates numerous joint security areas (JSAs). In a maritime environment, JSAs can be separated by considerable distances, and they probably will not be with areas that are actively engaged in combat. A theater army headquarters or theater sustainment command (TSC) may be required to conduct theater sustainment operations from a single designated JSA or from multiple locations, depending on mission requirements. Army forces may also be designated to secure the JSA and critical intermediate staging bases. (See JP 3-10 for additional information on planning and execution of operations in the JSA.) ASSIGNING AN AREA OF OPERATIONS 7-30. An AO is the operational area defined by a commander for land and maritime forces. The JFC assigns land areas of operations. The designation of subordinate AOs in a maritime environment enables freedom of action, maintains tempo, and maximizes available combat power. Larger island land masses may allow Army forces to operate with a contiguous AO, with the unit boundaries directly adjacent to each other. Smaller archipelagic island chains may require a noncontiguous AO and may even leave some islands within a designated AO completely unoccupied by friendly forces depending on the operational requirements and threat. Figure 7-2 illustrates a notional corps area of operations with significant maritime aspects. Figure 7-2. Notional corps area of operation with maritime aspects 7-8 FM 3-0 01 October 2022  Army Operations in Maritime Environments Deep Operations in Maritime Environments 7-31. Deep operations in a maritime environment may focus on defeating enemy antiaccess (A2) and AD capabilities to set conditions for joint offensive operations using information collection, special operations forces, and fires. They may also focus on reconnaissance and security activities in support of joint defensive operations using the same capabilities. In either situation, Army intelligence capabilities support operations in the extended deep area, enabling the JFC to understand and visualize the operational environment before shaping with fires or maneuver forces in subsequent operations. Army fires assets may also be designated in a support role to other component commands, providing suppression of enemy air defense for aerial attack of island-based enemy forces or surface fires to defeat enemy naval forces. Joint forcible entry operations, to include the amphibious landing of Army forces, may seize key terrain to begin or exploit the disintegration of an enemy A2 or AD approach in a specific joint operations area (JOA). Close Operations in Maritime Environments 7-32. Close operations in a maritime environment may Seizure or defense of key terrain may be appear much the same as a traditional land-based necessary for placement of surface-to- approach discussed in Chapter 6. Seizing key terrain surface or surface-to air-fires capabilities to requires Army forces to conduct offensive operations, enable other component commands. which can include airborne, air assault, and amphibious assaults. Close operations also include defense of islands and island-based nodes that facilitate joint operations, such as airfields and ports. Given the isolated nature of some forward-deployed Army forces critical to the success of joint operations, those forces may be required to conduct defensive operations for extended periods until additional forces arrive. Sustainment planning should assume isolation for periods of several weeks or more. Rear Operations in Maritime Environments 7-33. Rear operations in a maritime environment include those necessary to set and sustain the theater and facilitate combat operations for the joint force. These operations include conducting protected reception, staging, onward movement, and integration (RSOI) and conducting theater sustainment. RSOI could occur thousands of miles away from where a unit would be employed in combat. These operations require increased joint integration during the planning process to ensure prioritization of critical joint resources and to mitigate risk to vulnerable and extended air and sea lines of communications. 7-34. Sustainment and protection operations are associated with support areas, enabling the building and preservation of combat power. While forces positioned on land masses have their own support areas, large expanses of water may require waterborne or airborne transportation for the staging and movement of personnel and equipment between various echeloned support areas. Support areas may be sea based or land based on islands, connected by sea or air lines of communications. These strategic and tactical support areas are critical assets that can be vulnerable to enemy attack, and they typically require increased security considerations, such as anti-submarine and theater AMD. SECTION III – OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR A MARITIME ENVIRONMENT A landing on a foreign coast in the face of hostile troops has always been one of the most difficult operations of war. Captain Sir Basil H. Liddell Hart 7-35. In a predominantly maritime JOA, naval and air components are typically the key components of the JFC’s operational approach. Army forces develop a nested operational approach that reflects and supports the JFC plan. This section details what Army forces consider to successfully nest their operational approach with the joint force. (See ATP 5-0.1 for a more detailed discussion on the Army’s recommendations for developing operational approaches. See JP 5-0 for a more detailed discussion of the joint operations planning processes.) 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 7-9 Chapter 7 ESTABLISH COMMAND AND CONTROL 7-36. Given the size of an AOR for most maritime environments and the distance between land areas, there may be multiple active JOAs, each with separate headquarters. Maritime environments impose significant challenges for theater army signal and sustainment architecture. Subordinate ARFORs rely on maritime and space capabilities to overcome these challenges. DEFEND AND CONTROL KEY TERRAIN 7-37. Friendly forces are stationed or positioned in dispersed forward positions in maritime theaters, and often have been there for decades to facilitate joint operations throughout a maritime theater. Their locations are typically key or even decisive terrain, which requires that Army forces must also be able to defend and control that terrain. Their ability to do so is a function of survivability that depends on active and passive defense measures, reinforcement with critical weapons systems, hardening and camouflaging of command posts, securing critical C2 networks, sustainment, and the employment of protection-oriented land forces. Providing active and passive AMD, to include early warning, reduces the effectiveness of enemy long-range fires or attack. Forward-positioned forces must be prepared to fight outnumbered and from exposed terrain, specifically islands, for as long as is required. This increases the need for security throughout the AOR and forward-positioned sustainment capabilities. Army forces enhance the protection of their own less mobile assets by continually improving the survivability of their positions. 7-38. Retaining critical island terrain through an effective defense, one that includes counterreconnaissance and security operations, is vital for the success of the JFC’s objectives to deny enemy forces a relative advantage. Retaining key land masses enables joint freedom of action for operations in the air and maritime domains, since land-based capabilities can maintain a persistent physical presence that lessens requirements on air and naval forces to secure avenues of approach. Defeating enemy C2 systems is key to defeating layered standoff, A2 weapons, early warning, and enemy reconnaissance and surveillance capabilities. The ability to maintain key terrain for access and security enables the JFC to employ key long-range fires and protection capabilities. This enables regional access during armed conflict critical for maritime freedom of navigation and air superiority. Denying enemy access to limited terrain, sea channels, airspace, and cyberspace by occupying key terrain is crucial to creating an advantage. As there is no easy exfiltration from an exposed island base or maneuver to positions outside of enemy fires ranges, the physical reinforcement of bases may be critical to the success of Army forces in enabling joint force success. PROTECTION SUPPORT TO THE DEFENSE 7-39. The ability to protect and augment the security of the other Services is critical in maritime theaters because of the relative isolation of the forces they position forward and the exposure of those forces to threat capabilities that could be employed with few indications or warnings. The following tasks directly support theater setting and are critical to the success of joint maritime operations: z AMD, to include counter-unmanned aircraft systems (UASs). z Littoral defense. z Area security (base and base cluster defense). z Chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) defense. z Explosive ordnance disposal support. z General, combat, and geospatial engineering support. 7-40. Ground-based theater-level AMD assets are typically operational control (OPCON) to the Army air and missile defense command (AAMDC) for the JOA. The AAMDC is assigned to the theater army and generally placed in support of the area air defense commander. Army short-range air defense (SHORAD) units are assigned or attached to theater, corps, or division commands, and are OPCON to air defense artillery (ADA) commanders at these echelons. Army forces provide security for designated high priority assets, including layering SHORAD assets into the security plan as part of a defended asset list. The JFC normally delegates authority to the joint force air component commander, as the area air defense commander, for engagements of air and missile threats. When the JFC organizes the joint force, in addition to a joint force air component commander, the JFC also normally designates an area air defense commander for defensive 7-10 FM 3-0 01 October 2022  Army Operations in Maritime Environments counterair and an airspace control authority for joint airspace control. Normally, the JFC designates the air component commander as the area air defense commander and airspace control authority, because the three functions are so integral to one another. Coordination and integration with the surface combatants of the joint maritime component commander performing AMD roles for critical joint bases is also required. With the support of the component commanders, the area air defense commander develops, integrates, and distributes a JFC-approved joint area air defense plan. (See to FM 3-01 or ATP 3-01.15 for detailed information about the planning and integration of AMD.) 7-41. Theater and tactical ADA units provide early warning by employing sensors to detect air and missile threats and disseminating air defense warnings to U.S. forces, allied or partnered forces, and civilian populations. C2 elements disseminate air defense early warnings through various communication networks and nodes, to include submitting an incoming threat or an all-clear message to the network. (See FM 3-01 for more detailed information on early warning tasks associated with AMD operations.) 7-42. Army forces in maritime environments should assume their land operations are being observed by the enemy and not assume that AMD protection extends to their AO, especially when separated by extended distances and vast bodies of water. Larger air threats entering friendly space can be detected early, and identified, processed, and defeated as part of the air component’s roles and responsibilities to the JFC. There remains a requirement to find (including detect, identify, and be prepared to defeat) UASs, which could be launched from naval or commercial vessels or other land masses. Sensors, which include long-range and short-range radars, optical devices, wireless, and audible alert systems face challenges detecting smaller tactical UASs at sufficient ranges to mitigate effects. (See ATP 3-01.81 for more information regarding counter-UAS planning and execution.) 7-43. The JFC normally designate JSAs and designates forces to provide the security of base, base clusters, and lines of communications. Various types of security forces can secure the JSA and lines of communications, including dedicated Army forces, coalition partners, and host-nation forces. Bases and base clusters can be noncontiguous with each other even on relatively small islands, and they may be separated by extended distances and vast bodies of water. 7-44. Army commanders can be assigned roles as an area commander, base cluster commander, or base commander, all of which facilitate base defense in support of land and other Service forces. Base threats may include special operations forces, naval gunfire, long-range surface-to-surface fires, and manned and unmanned aircraft. Security forces should be able to coordinate for indirect and joint fire support, have a high degree of tactical mobility, and a reasonable span of C2. (See JP 3-10 for more information on the joint requirements for base defense and securing lines of communication. See ATP 3-37.10 for more information on the techniques of establishing and securing bases.) 7-45. Threat employment of CBRN weapons can deny access to key terrain containing ports, airfields, or staging areas for either friendly or enemy forces until decontamination is complete or until the land component commander assumes the risk of operating in a contaminated environment. Army forces should understand the threat’s intent, weapons capabilities, and weapons effects. The threat may range from artillery or rockets to theater ballistic missiles. Delivery tactics could include overt or covert means (for example, special operations forces), state-sponsored terrorism, or other asymmetric methods. Contamination mitigation minimizes the time required to return personnel and mission-essential equipment to a mission-capable state as part of an overall contamination mitigation plan for the JOA. (See ATP 3-11.32 for more detailed information about CBRN and contamination mitigation techniques during security operations.) 7-46. Explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) units detect, identify, conduct onsite evaluations, render safe, and conduct exploitation, disposal, or other disposition of explosive ordnance, including weapons of mass destruction. They advise commanders on improvised explosive devices and other explosive hazard threats, including the most effective way to defeat the devices. They also directly support requirements to render safe explosive hazards that put the use of ports, airfields, and other critical infrastructure at risk. EOD units can support remediation of areas that ensure access to clear aerial ports of debarkation and seaports of debarkation facilities and other facilities that support seaports. (See JP 3-42 for a more detailed discussion on the joint integration and Army roles for ordnance. See ATP 4-32 for detailed information on the techniques of EOD.) 7-47. Islands identified as key terrain for operations typically require additional engineer support to harden existing key infrastructure or construct new infrastructure to meet the JFC’s requirements for airfields, ports, 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 7-11 Chapter 7 and survivability positions. Construction equipment, personnel, and supplies often require specific transportation coordination and prioritization as critical assets for movement by air or sea. Remote locations that do not have immediate access to organic engineer support require either locally procured or contracted construction capabilities or manually constructed survivability positions that are concealed as best as possible from enemy observation as part of survivability measures. (See FM 3-34 for fundamentals and planning considerations on the employment of general and combat engineer capabilities. See ATP 3-37.34 for specific techniques and considerations on protective positions, camouflage, and enhancing survivability.) SECURITY OPERATIONS IN MARITIME ENVIRONMENTS 7-48. The JFC designates the area commander for base and lines of communication security, and most of the security tasks are typically the responsibility of land force commanders. Collaborative planning and integration between ground forces providing base security and naval and air forces providing sea lines of communications security is crucial to maintaining freedom of navigation for combat operations. Army forces provide security support to all bases within their designated JOA. Brigade combat teams (BCTs), military police brigades, and maneuver enhancement brigades are suitable for this function. This responsibility can include bases commanded by organizations that are not part of the area commander’s forces, such as multinational allies or other joint services. The JFC may institute standard force protection policies for all commands and bases within an AOR to ensure unity of effort. 7-49. A joint force land component commander (JFLCC) may be designated as the joint security coordinator by the JFC, with other unified action partner forces assigned to support security plans for the JOA. The joint security coordinator coordinates the overall protection of the joint security area in accordance with JFC directives and priorities. This ensures the requirements and priorities are coordinated with the area air defense commander. The joint security coordinator typically establishes a joint security coordination center. The staff of this center may be part of the JFLCC headquarters, or this function may be delegated to a subordinate unit, and it normally includes representatives from all components operating in the JSA to assist in meeting joint security requirements. 7-50. Every island with a base, regardless of size, requires the same level of comprehensive planning to ensure sufficient protection in the event there are no reinforcements immediately available when conflict commences. Army forces should anticipate direct enemy attacks by small units or special operations ground forces, attack aircraft, and indirect fires. Commanders must ensure that base defense measures are adequate to detect and defeat small-unit operations (including Level I or Level II threats) well before crisis or conflict. Dispersion mitigates effects of long-range fires and attack aircraft, but dispersion on small islands is not always possible. Construction, reinforcement, and caching supplies may be the primary option to offset this vulnerability, but they are necessary everywhere within range of threat capabilities. 7-51. Successful security of key terrain and infrastructure depends on an integrated and aggressive plan consisting of dedicated security forces and responsive sustainment and protection forces (including medical, ADA, and engineer). The theater army synchronizes the base security plans, integrates them into the overall JFC’s intent, and allocates additional forces for securing sustainment nodes and command posts, key terrain, or critical infrastructure necessary for combat operations. Remote island bases have the same security planning considerations, but they vary in their tactical application based on the environment. These considerations include, but are not limited to— z Defense against sea-based attacks, such as enemy special operations forces or naval fires. z The integration and application of coastal-based indirect fire systems and fire support planning. z Integrated planning for aviation support, including movement and protection of forward arming and refueling points. z Coastal and harbor security support and integration of host-nation or local security forces. z Integration of coastal barrier systems, sea-based obstacles, and sea-based or harbor mines. (See JP 3-10 for more information on joint security coordination command posts. See ADP 3-37 for more information regarding the fundamentals of protection and protection planning.) 7-12 FM 3-0 01 October 2022  Army Operations in Maritime Environments DEFEAT COMPONENTS OF ENEMY ANTIACCESS AND AREA DENIAL AND ENABLE JOINT OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS 7-52. Army forces support joint defeat of enemy integrated air defense, fires and strike complexes, surveillance, and reconnaissance, and integrated C2 networks to enable success during joint operations. AMD and fire support are two of the Army’s critical contributions to these efforts, enabling ground, naval, and air forces to maintain access to the various regions of an operational environment. PROVIDE THEATER AIR AND MISSILE DEFENSE 7-53. Friendly ADA forces may protect maritime access points, such as shipping channels or ports, to enable the flow of combat power and theater sustainment. Considerations for employing ADA capabilities during AMD operations in a maritime environment are— z Defeat enemy air and missile threats encountered in strategic and tactical operations, including medium-range, short-range, and close-range ballistic missiles; cruise missiles; UASs; rockets, artillery, and mortars; tactical air-to-surface missiles; and fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft. z Integrate and maintain tactical data linkages to other Service and multinational forces conducting AMD operations in the JOA, weapons systems, sensors, effectors, and C2 nodes at each echelon. z Provide early warning for air and missile attacks and disseminate attack warnings. z Provide extended-range surveillance of the airspace and detect, acquire, track, classify, discriminate, and identify aerial objects from near-ground level to high altitudes in difficult terrain and in adverse weather conditions. z Contribute to airspace management and control functions by identifying, coordinating, integrating, and deconflicting Army assets in the JOA airspace. 7-54. The number and dispersion of critical assets across numerous islands may exceed the ability of available ADA forces to defend against the air and missile threats. The employment of passive AMD measures by tactical formations is critical to their survivability, particularly on remote islands that may not have access to sufficient active ADA capabilities or reinforcement from a neighboring island chain. Access to early warning networks with over-the-horizon and redundant communications increases reaction time and further mitigates risks for remote locations primarily using passive defense measures. (See FM 3-01 for more detailed information on planning considerations associated with AMD operations.) FORCIBLE ENTRY OPERATIONS 7-55. In a maritime environment, Army forces are likely to conduct two complex forms of forcible entry operations: airborne or air assault and amphibious landing. Forcible entry operations seize and hold lodgments against armed opposition to set conditions for follow on operations. To set favorable conditions for success during forcible entry, commanders and staffs must— z Visualize the entry location and understand the impact of other domains on forcible entry operations. z Control air and maritime areas to protect the force and preserve lines of communications leading up to and during the entry. z Disrupt enemy influence during entry. z Isolate the lodgment from reinforcement by enemy forces. z Maintain access to the lodgment throughout the duration of operations to build and sustain combat power. z Manage the lodgment to integrate other supporting operations. z Seize and maintain the initiative to achieve surprise throughout the entry operations. 7-56. The JFC decides whether to conduct the forcible entry as a concurrent or integrated operation. Concurrent forcible entry operations occur when a combination of amphibious assault, airborne, air, or ground assault forcible entry operations are conducted simultaneously, but as distinct operations with separate AOs and objectives. Integrated forcible entry operations occur when amphibious assault, airborne assault, air assault, and ground forcible entries are conducted simultaneously within the same AO against 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 7-13 Chapter 7 mutually supporting objectives. Large island land masses would likely involve integrated forcible entry involving U.S. Marines and potentially allied or partner forces. Smaller archipelagic island chains could require concurrent forcible entries that enable security operations or subsequent main and supporting efforts against larger objectives. 7-57. Forcible entry operations by ground, sea, or air all use the same phasing model to facilitate coordination and synchronization. These phases are preparation and deployment, assault, stabilization of the lodgment, introduction of follow-on forces, and termination or transition operations. Planning for forcible entry also includes planning for— z Movement planning over extended lines of communications over water. z Information collection against an enemy with layered and integrated early warning. z Management of transitions when lines of communications and networks are extended over water. z Insertion of special operations forces. z Ensuring air superiority over the joint landing area. z Coordination for initial and reinforcing entry forces for the initial assault and main assault. z Establishment and operation of any potential intermediate staging bases. z Lodgment security, organization, and expansion from shore to an island interior. (See JP 3-18 for more detailed discussion and information about Army forces roles, responsibilities, and planning considerations for joint forcible entry operations.) AMPHIBIOUS OPERATIONS 7-58. Planning for an amphibious operation is continuous, and it requires collaborative, parallel, and detailed planning by all participating forces. The organization of any amphibious operation should be sufficiently flexible to meet the planned objectives in each phase of the operation and account for unforeseen developments. Sound planning provides for unity of effort through unity of command, centralized planning and direction, and decentralized execution. JFCs may decide to establish a functional component command to integrate planning and reduce JFC span of control. This improves the efficiency of information flow, weapons systems management, component interaction, unity of effort, or control over the scheme of maneuver. Regardless of approach, the JFC designates command relationships for the commanders of the amphibious task force and landing forces. The designation of the supported and supporting role of the amphibious force commanders is important, as it establishes main and supporting efforts and prioritizes resources. 7-59. Opposed landings in a maritime environment are one of the most difficult and dangerous military operations, so achieving the element of surprise should be pursued by all available means. Overt activities that threaten the element of surprise should be kept to a minimum and conducted as close as practical to the arrival of joint fire support assets in the JOA. Deception operations may facilitate surprise if they portray a course of action the enemy expects or a timeline for execution different than planned. Deception operations are a necessity during assault breaching of a defended beachhead. Large lane sizes demand large numbers of weapons and multiple aircraft passes to clear zones prior to the assault. This may draw immediate attention to the landing force unless alternate lanes are brought under fire as well 7-60. The landing force typically consists of maneuver, protection, and tactical echelon sustainment forces. The JFC designates the landing forces commander. If Army forces are part of the landing force, they must be task-organized with appropriate combat and sustainment capabilities to support the landing force. Army forces also provide intra-theater ship-to-shore transport, including landing craft, cargo handling, logistics, traffic control, and engineering capabilities. Note. If the JFC organizes planning along functional lines, functional component commanders normally exercise OPCON over their parent Services’ forces and tactical control (TACON) over other Services’ forces attached or made available for tasking. 7-61. Setting conditions prior to the execution of any amphibious operation is critical. Enabling operations that set conditions include supporting and pre-landing operations. These require detailed integration at all 7-14 FM 3-0 01 October 2022  Army Operations in Maritime Environments echelons and highly synchronized employment of Army and joint capabilities that can reinforce success and ensure landing force survivability under conditions where reinforcement or support may not be readily available. Planning for forcible entry also includes planning for— z Force concealment as part of a larger joint military deception operation. z Maritime clearance of mines in the vicinity of transportation lanes, landing beaches, and shore- based sustainment nodes. z Maritime and hydrographic reconnaissance for landing beaches and sea approach lanes. z Accurate prediction of weather and tidal conditions. z Seabasing of supporting aviation resources, such as aeromedical evacuation or attack aviation. z Assault breaching and beach clearance of anti-landing obstacles, which may include mines. z Status of civil and local national inhabited areas, to both conceal landing forces and prevent civilian casualties. 7-62. Pre-landing operations take place between the commencement of the action phase (arrival of the amphibious force into the operational area) and the ship-to-shore movement. There is rarely a clear transition between support and pre-landing operations, and this must be planned for and clearly communicated across echelons prior to execution. Some planning considerations during this phase include— z Obstacle clearance (including perimeter and main barrier minefields and the engineer and beach barriers that canalize landing forces) and marking usable sea and shore channels for follow-on forces. z Integration of naval fire support. z Integration of air support, including electromagnetic warfare and airspace between the landing force and amphibious task force. z Clearance of fires on landing areas. z Ammunition and fuel expenditure prior to landing. z Loss and recovery of equipment prior to landing. z Loss of personnel and recovery of casualties prior to landing. z Resupply and rearming schedule for amphibious and landing forces. z Landing force requirements to support other forces prior to and after the landing assault. z Organization and location of reserve in a similar manner as the assault force. 7-63. During an amphibious operation, a subsidiary landing outside the designated landing area is normally conducted by elements of the amphibious task force to support the main landing. Subsidiary landings should be planned and executed by commanders with the same precision as the main landing. Amphibious re-embarkation for follow-on operations may require additional support from specialized units or other Service forces and additional logistics support to replace lost or damaged equipment and depleted supplies. For tactical echelons, combat rubber raiding craft can provide flexibility to amphibious operations, including movement to reconnaissance objectives and subsidiary landings sites, movement of forces inland from a coast along waterways, or recovery of casualties to support vessels. Additionally, Army planning must account for casualties and the continued medical treatment of patients, potential for CBRN decontamination, requirement to transport remains or provide mortuary services, transportation and transfer of enemy detainees, and logistics to support basic sustenance ashore. (See JP 3-02 for more information about the fundamentals of planning and executing joint amphibious operations. See MCTP 13-10M for more detailed information and considerations on amphibious embarkation. See ATP 3-17.2 for tactical considerations on movement from ship to shore and the C2 of shore and beach parties.) SUSTAIN LARGE-SCALE COMBAT OPERATIONS IN MARITIME ENVIRONMENTS 7-64. Setting and sustaining a maritime theater includes RSOI of personnel and equipment and the protection of forward-positioned forces critical to the security of key strategic assets, such as theater AMD, airfields, ports, and sea lanes. Army watercraft are essential to sustainment in maritime environments as they are designed to perform missions specifically related to intratheater movement of combat power and sustainment. 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 7-15 Chapter 7 While capable of deploying over strategic distances, Army watercraft are not strategic lift platforms, but they are a critical link between strategic lift and land-oriented tactical movements. Army and Navy engineering assets are critical to the establishment and maintenance of port facilities. ESTABLISH PROTECTED RECEPTION, STAGING, ONWARD MOVEMENT, AND INTEGRATION 7-65. During armed conflict in a maritime operational environment, theater opening and RSOI vary to meet mission requirements of the JFC. The theater engineer command is responsible for developing and maintaining the necessary infrastructure (including ports and roadways) that support RSOI and follow-on operations. Multiple islands requiring multiple ports will increase the demand for specialized engineer and sustainment formations to construct, develop, maintain, and operate them. 7-66. Rather than gaining efficiencies from a consolidated location, the theater army may be required to support multiple JSAs and RSOI sites. Using multiple RSOI locations increases the overall signal, sustainment, protection, and maneuver requirements for the theater. An often-overlooked component of RSOI is the mandatory combat training that needs to be conducted. TSC personnel do not conduct this training; a maneuver force must provide the personnel. More RSOI locations require more trainers. 7-67. Multiple JSAs and JOAs will likely require the theater army to request additional signal assets to support the theater signal brigade as they develop the necessary C2 architecture to support operations. Both the strategic signal brigade and the tactical signal brigade will require significant augmentation to support the theater and JOA communications network. Army forces maintain coastal, harbor, and inland waterway defense while accounting for extended deployment times. Critical protection, firepower, and mobility assets may also be disbursed across numerous islands in the AOR and in the JOA, requiring detailed coordination and reconfiguration of loads prior to embarkation. Note. Given the varying nature of islands and maritime environments where Army forces may operate, there are many scenarios where RSOI take place outside the JOA, and onward movement for Army forces may occur just prior to the execution of a forcible entry operation to an island. This may also change from island to island, depending on the enemy situation. 7-68. In a maritime environment, reception, staging, and integration activities may need to occur prior to onward movement into a JOA. The process of securing and uploading unit basic loads, addressing life support for personnel, or reconfiguring underway must occur prior to debarking directly into combat. Units that require extensive support for staging, including maintenance or cross-loading of supplies critical to survivability (Class IV and Class V items), may require an intermediate staging base outside the JOA before continuing on to their debarkation point. Additionally, units may execute onward movement out of sequence from reception, staging, and integration. Units may need to conduct integration during embarkation or during a reconfiguration at an intermediate base outside the JOA. 7-69. RSOI may occur from sea bases. Seabasing is the deployment, assembly, command, projection, sustainment, reconstitution, and reemployment of joint power from the sea without reliance on land bases within the operational area (JP 3-02). Seabasing provides Army forces with the ability to conduct certain functions and tasks at sea without dependence on infrastructure ashore, and it minimizes the need for stockpiles ashore while positioning joint forces for immediate employment. Seabasing requires detailed collaborative planning between joint forces, but it can provide a secure base of operations with C2 capability, and it minimizes the requirements ashore for an initial port and airfield to support missions. (See JP 3-02 for more information on considerations for planning and executing staging operations from sea bases.) CONDUCT THEATER SUSTAINMENT OPERATIONS 7-70. Theater sustainment in a maritime environment is a highly collaborative process. When directed to provide management of common sustainment functions that include other Services, the TSC leads the joint sustainment planning board. Army forces provide theater and port opening functions for joint forces to maintain strategic and operational reach. Theater sustainment plans must account for— z Maritime movement of Army pre-positioned stocks (APS). z Joint logistics over-the-shore (JLOTS). 7-16 FM 3-0 01 October 2022  Army Operations in Maritime Environments z Intertheater transportation by joint assets. z Intratheater transportation for personnel during and after RSOI. z Classes of supply and access to field services. z Field and sustainment maintenance in remote locations. z Distribution. z Operational contract support. z General engineering (ports and airfields). z Sustaining and mitigating impact of limited island infrastructure. z Mortuary affairs. 7-71. Bringing APS ashore requires detailed planning as part of the movement control and sustainment planning boards at the TSC and Army field support battalions. APS are positioned strategically, and they are not designated to any specific unit. Floating stocks may be discharged in support of armed conflict and require detailed early planning. In a maritime environment, the sustainment demands and maintenance footprint for an APS download operation may quickly exceed the capabilities of a small island port. The APS download has significant considerations for suitable, deep draft port facilities and infrastructure, support equipment, host-nation and coalition approval for port access, maintenance personal, and detailed force protection and security plans. The demand for maintenance and support personnel and security forces is significant, and it requires additional sustainment planning. APS download operations typically require a TSC or division-level C2 node and additional protection assets to mitigate their vulnerability to enemy attacks. (See ATP 3-35.1 for more information on planning for APS stocks in combat operations.) 7-72. JLOTS is a key enabler to combat operations in maritime environments. It is typically coordinated and controlled by the TSC. JLOTS allows heavy forces to be moved from ship to shore when there are no modern deep-water ports available, such as on various smaller atolls or when ports are not available due to combat damage or volume of shipping. The strategic flexibility provided by JLOTS requires detailed coordination and frequent training as a Navy and Army warfighting skill set before conflict occurs. This family of systems includes vulnerable assets that facilitate the ship-to-shore movement of necessary supplies and the administration of personnel supporting JLOTS. The offshore petroleum distribution system, elevated causeway system, pier systems, roll on/roll off discharge facilities, and the administration architecture associated with JLOTS employment are highly vulnerable, lack protection or early warning systems, and are unable to quickly displace in the event of enemy attack. If a JFC is considering using a JLOTS, the command should take measures to reduce its vulnerability. (See JP 4-01.6 for more detailed information about JLOTS.) 7-73. Because of the constraints imposed on ground movement in maritime operational environments, it is critical that the TSC integrates into the JFC’s transportation board and working groups to prioritize and execute transportation operations during armed conflict. This board and working group direct the planning and coordination of modal operations, intermodal operations, movement control, and theater distribution. Surface transportation normally requires a pre-planned transition from watercraft to motor transport at the shoreline for the movement of supplies and personnel in-shore. Naval forces provide essential causeway, sealift, and logistics over-the-shore support to land forces when ports may be austere, damaged, or non- existent. Naval forces may be responsible for downloading supplies from vessels and delivering them to port operations for release to Army forces. Commanders may task Army forces to assist with downloading and uploading equipment and supplies from ships and boats. Naval construction capabilities provide port construction such as warehouses, storage facilities and explosive ordnance disposal to locate and dispose of mines along ports and channels. 7-74. Army watercraft provide additional sealift and sustainment capabilities to the JFC and JFLCC as part of inter-island transportation support. Given the limited availability of these critical assets, most of which are highly vulnerable to attack from enemy antiship systems, some Army equipment and forces may be prioritized lower than other Service equipment and forces for transportation into and around the AOR. Army watercraft operations depend on host-nation access and infrastructure improvement to enable both maneuver forces and follow-on sustainment. Army units assigned to maritime environments with organic tactical combat rubber raiding craft can also provide a tactical means of intra-island and possibly inter-island resupply. This can reduce the burden for operational assets, providing increased access to restrictive littoral terrain, a reduced signature for targeting, and flexibility to operational and tactical commanders. (See 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 7-17 Chapter 7 FM 4-01 for more information about Army transportation planning, command relationships, and overall capabilities to the joint force. See ATP 4-15 for more a more detailed discussion about the techniques of planning for and employing Army watercraft.) 7-75. Commercial shipping organizations may provide movement assets, but they require increased planning and support due to a lack of organic protection systems. The theater army’s contribution to transportation during combat operations in a maritime environment may be to protect lighterage operations. Lighterage is the process in which small craft are used to transport cargo or personnel from ship-to-shore using amphibians, landing craft, discharge lighters, causeways, and barges (JP 4-01.6). It can also transfer equipment and personnel between ships or for intratheater transport. Lighterage includes landing craft and modular causeway systems, such as ferries. To facilitate port operations at joint intermediate staging bases, Army forces provide and operate float utility watercraft, such as harbor and ocean-going tugs, pusher tugs, floating cranes, barges, floating causeways, and roll-on/roll-off discharge facilities. Once sustainment assets are positioned to support specific tactical operations, it is difficult and time consuming to reposition them when priorities shift. 7-76. For inter-theater and intra-theater air transportation operations by fixed-wing assets, the TSC is responsible for consolidating, prioritizing, and processing aerial resupply requests. A division or corps aviation officer determines consolidation and synchronization of rotary-wing movement based on the commander’s priorities. Intra-theater rotary-wing movement in a JOA requires aircrews trained and equipped for deck landing and overwater flight operations. 7-77. Army forces provide operational medical support to the joint force. Although military medical forces are afforded protection under the law of armed conflict from being directly targeted, the geographic constraints associated with providing medical support to forces on islands, in likely proximity to combatant forces or key terrain, coupled with the effects of long-range fires, increases risks to medical forces and facilities. Hardening of medical care facilities in exposed locations, like on small or remote islands, is crucial to maintaining hospital survival. Additionally, threats from nonstate actors upon medical facilities and capabilities may require increased protection measures. Units may need to rely on ship-based medical facilities during initial operations, which requires joint planning and coordination. Higher-level care facilities also place an increased demand on certain classes of supply, which may be difficult to transport, have special storage requirements (for example, refrigeration), and be difficult to off-load in remote island locations. (See FM 4-0 for more information on the Army's operational medical support to the joint force.) 7-78. The lethality of large-scale combat operations can devastate both the social fabric and the economic viability of small islands where construction assets may be limited even before conflict occurs. Early establishment of base security and maintaining viable governance may largely depend on the repair of critical port and airfield infrastructure. A JTF commander may use either operational contract support or request military engineers to repair facilities during combat operations (or improve their survivability prior to combat operations). 7-79. In the Arctic, base infrastructure materials across the region need to have high thermal efficiency, long-term durability, tolerance to repeated freeze and thaw cycles, and resistance to permafrost degradation. Infrastructure in many austere locations has already deteriorated due to extreme environmental factors. It can also complicate force sustainment operations as roadways, seaports, and airfields are potentially rendered inoperable by ice, snow, seasonal thaws, and freeze cycles. Class IV construction material resupply for arctic use may have long lead times. Therefore, infrastructure to be used by military units deployed to arctic areas should be inspected as soon as possible to identify deterioration and inadequate systems. 7-18 FM 3-0 01 October 2022