Criminalistics Chapter 6: Fingerprints PDF

Criminalistics An Introduction to Forensic Science ELEVENTH EDITION CHAPTER 6 Fingerprints Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic...

Criminalistics An Introduction to Forensic Science ELEVENTH EDITION CHAPTER 6 Fingerprints Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  History The first systematic attempt at personal identification was devised by a French police expert, Alphonse Bertillion. The Bertillion system relied on a detailed description of the subject, combined with full-length and profile photographs and a system of precise body measurements called anthropometry. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  History In 1892 Francis Galton published his classic textbook Finger Prints. At Galton’s insistence, the British government adopted fingerprinting as a supplement to the Bertillion system. The next step was the creation of classification systems capable of filing many thousands of prints in a logical and searchable sequence. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  History Dr. Juan Vucetich devised a classification system still used in most Spanish-speaking countries, while Sir Edward Henry devised another classification system used in most English-speaking countries. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  History In 1903, when the Bertillion system could not distinguish between two men (one Will West and the other William West), it was fingerprinting that clearly distinguished them. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  History After the Will West incident, the use of fingerprinting by the New York City Civil Service Commission in 1901, and the training of American police by Scotland Yard representatives at the 1904 World’s Fair, fingerprinting began to be used in earnest in all major U.S. cities. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Fingerprint Principles Fingerprints are a reproduction of friction skin ridges found on the palm side of the fingers and thumbs. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Fingerprint Principles The basic principles underlying the use of fingerprints in criminal investigations are that: 1. A fingerprint is an individual characteristic because no two fingers have yet been found to possess identical ridge characteristics; Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Fingerprint Principles The basic principles underlying the use of fingerprints in criminal investigations are that: 2. A fingerprint will remain unchanged during an individual’s lifetime; and 3. A fingerprints have general ridge patterns that permit them to be systematically classified. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Principle One Mathematically, the probability for the existence of two identical fingerprint patterns in the world’s population is extremely small. Galton calculated the existence of 64 billion different fingerprints.  Besides theoretical calculations, of the millions upon millions of individuals who have had their prints classified, no two fingerprints have been found to be identical. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Principle One Mathematically, the probability for the existence of two identical fingerprint patterns in the world’s population is extremely small. Galton calculated the existence of 64 billion different fingerprints.  The individuality of a fingerprint is not determined by its general shape or pattern, but by the careful study of its ridge characteristics, known as minutiae. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Principle One Mathematically, the probability for the existence of two identical fingerprint patterns in the world’s population is extremely small. Galton calculated the existence of 64 billion different fingerprints.  It is the identity, number, and relative location of these minutiae that imparts individuality to a fingerprint. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Principle One Some common fingerprint ridge characteristics are bifurcations, ridge endings, ridge dots, and enclosures.  There are as many as 150 minutiae on the average finger.  Currently in the United States, there is no predetermined minimum number of friction ridge characters which must be present in two impressions in order to establish positive identification. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Principle One Some common fingerprint ridge characteristics are bifurcations, ridge endings, ridge dots, and enclosures.  In a judicial proceeding, an expert must demonstrate a point-by-point comparison in order to prove the identity of an individual. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved FIGURE 6–1 Fingerprint ridge characteristics. Courtesy Sirchie Fingerprint Laboratories, Youngsville, NC, www.sirchie.com Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved FIGURE 6–2 A fingerprint exhibit illustrating the matching ridge characteristics between the crime-scene print and an inked impression of one of the suspect’s fingers. Richard Saferstein, Ph.D. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Principle Two The epidermis is the outer layer of the skin, while the dermis is the inner layer of the skin. The dermal papillae is the layer of cells between the epidermis and dermis, that is responsible for determining the form and pattern of the ridges on the surface of the skin. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Principle Two Once the dermal papillae develop in the human fetus, the ridge patterns will remain unchanged throughout life except to enlarge during growth. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Principle Two Each skin ridge is populated with pores leading to sweat glands, from which perspiration is deposited on the skin. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Principle Two Once the finger touches a surface, perspiration, along with oils that may have been picked up by touching the hairy portions of the body, is transferred onto that surface, leaving the finger’s ridge pattern (a fingerprint). Pints deposited in this manner are invisible to the eye and are commonly referred to a latent fingerprints. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved FIGURE 6–3 Cross-section of human skin. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Principle Three All fingerprints are divided into three classes on the basis of their general pattern: loops, arches, and whorls (L.A.W.). 60-65% of the population have loops, 30-35% have whorls, and about 5% have arches. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Loops A loop must have one or more ridges entering from one side of the print, recurving, and exiting from the same side.  If the loop opens toward the little finger, it is called an ulnar loop.  If the loop opens toward the thumb, it is called a radial loop. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Loops The pattern area of the loop is surrounded by two diverging ridges known as type lines. The ridge point at or nearest the point where two type lines diverge is known as the delta. All loops must have one delta. The approximate center of the loop pattern is known as the core. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Principle Three All loops must have one delta, which is the ridge point at or directly in front of the point where two ridge lines (type lines) diverge. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved FIGURE 6–5 Loop pattern. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Whorls Whorls are divided into four groups: plain, central pocket loop, double loop, and accidental. All whorl patterns have type lines and a minimum of two deltas. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Whorls A plain whorl and a central pocket loop have at least one ridge that makes a complete circuit.  If an imaginary line drawn between the two deltas within these patterns touches any of the circular ridges, the pattern is a plain whorl. If no such ridge is touched, the pattern is a central pocket loop. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Whorls The double loop is made up of two loops combined into one fingerprint. An accidental either contains two or more patterns, or is a pattern not covered by the other categories. Hence, an accidental may consist of a combination loop and plain whorl or loop and tented arch. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Principle Three Whorls are divided into four groups: plain, central pocket loop, double loop, and accidental. All whorl patterns have type lines and a minimum of two deltas. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved FIGURE 6–6 Whorl patterns. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Arches Arches, the least common of the three general patterns, are divided into two distinct groups: plain arches and tented arches. The plain arch is formed by ridges entering from one side of the print, rising and falling, and exiting on the opposite side (like a wave). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Arches The tented arch is similar to the plain arch except that instead of rising smoothly at the center, there is a sharp upthrust or spike, or the ridges meet at an angle that is less than 90 degrees. Arches do not have type lines, deltas, or cores. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved FIGURE 6–7 Arch patterns. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  ACE-V A four-step process to identify and individualize a finger print: 1. Analysis 2. Comparison: compare the questioned print at (3) levels. 3. Identify 4. Verification: examiner’s conclusion is confirmed by a second examiner. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  ACE-V Level 1 encompasses the general ridge flow and pattern configuration. Level 2 includes locating and comparing ridge characteristics or minutiae. Level 3 includes the examination and location of ridge pores, breaks, creases, scars, and other permanent minutiae. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Primary Classification Fingerprint classification systems are based on knowledge of fingerprint pattern classes. The presence or absence of the whorl pattern is the basis for the determination of the primary classification. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Primary Classification If a whorl pattern is found on any finger of the first pair, it is assigned a value of 16; on the second pair, an 8; on the third pair, a 4; on the second pair, a 2; and on the last pair, a 1. Any finger having a loop or arch is assigned a 0. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Primary Classification After values for all 10 fingers are obtained, they are totaled, and a 1 is added to both the numerator and denominator. The fraction thus obtained is the primary classification. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Primary Classification Approximately 25% of the population falls into the 1/1 category; that is, all their fingers have either loops or arches. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Primary Classification A fingerprint classification system cannot in itself unequivocally identify an individual; it will merely provide the fingerprint examiner with a number of candidates, all of whom have an indistinguishable set of prints in the system’s file. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  AFIS The heart of AFIS technology is the ability of a computer to scan and digitally encode fingerprints so that they can be subject to high-speed computer processing. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  AFIS AFIS aids in classifying and retrieving fingerprints by converting the image of a fingerprint into digital minutiae that contain data showing ridges at their points of termination (ridge endings) and their branching into two ridges (bifurcations). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  AFIS When the search is complete (a computer can make thousands of comparisons per second), the computer produces a list of file prints that must be examined by a trained fingerprint expert. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  AFIS AFIS systems come in all sizes allowing for the creation of local systems at the country and city levels. Software incompatibilities often mean that state and local AFIS systems cannot communicate with each other and share information. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Latent Prints Once the finger touches a surface, body perspiration and/or oils present on the finger ridges are transferred to that surface, leaving an impression. Prints deposited in this manner are invisible to the eye and are commonly referred to as latent or invisible fingerprints. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Visible Prints Visible prints are made when fingers touch a surface after the ridges have been in contact with a colored material such as blood, paint, grease, or ink. Plastic prints are ridge impressions left on a soft material, such as putty, wax, soap, or dust. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Visible Prints Locating visible or plastic prints at the crime scene normally presents little problem to the investigator, because these prints are usually distinct and visible to the eye. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved Detecting Prints on Non-Porous Surfaces Latent prints deposited on hard and nonabsorbent surfaces (e.g., glass, mirror, tile, and painted wood) are preferably developed by the application of a powder; whereas prints on porous surfaces (e.g., papers, cardboard, and cloth) generally require treatment with a chemical. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved Detecting Prints on Non-Porous Surfaces Powders, available in a variety of colors, can be applied with a brush or magnetic wand, and adhere to perspiration and/or body oils of the print. Most common are black powders (black carbon) and gray powders (aluminum dust). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved Detecting Prints on Non-Porous Surfaces Super Glue® is approximately 98 to 99 percent cyanoacrylate ester, a chemical that actually interacts with and visualizes a latent fingerprint. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved Detecting Prints on Non-Porous Surfaces Super Glue® fuming develops latent prints on nonporous surfaces, such as metals, electrical tape, leather, and plastic bags.  Development occurs when fumes from the glue adhere to the print, usually producing a white latent print. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved Detecting Prints on Non-Porous Surfaces Super Glue® fuming can be accomplished by using either a fuming chamber (for up to six hours) or a handheld wand that heats a small cartridge containing cyanoacrylate. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved Detecting Prints on Non-Porous Surfaces Fingerprints are treated with chemicals that would induce fluorescence when exposed to lasers or high-intensity light sources (“alternate light sources”) such as quartz halogen, xenon arc, or indium arc light sources. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved Detecting Prints on Non-Porous Surfaces Dye combinations known as RAM, RAY, and MRM 10, when used in conjunction with Super Glue fuming, have been effective in visualizing latent fingerprints by fluorescence. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Detecting Prints on Porous Surfaces Examiners use various chemical methods to visualize latent prints on porous surfaces, such as iodine fuming, ninhydrin, and Physical Developer. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Detecting Prints on Porous Surfaces Iodine fuming involves heating iodine crystals that cause vapors which combine with latent prints to make them visible.  Iodine prints are not permanent and will fade, making it necessary to photograph the prints immediately. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Detecting Prints on Porous Surfaces Ninhydrin reacts chemically with trace amounts of amino acids present in latent prints to produce a purple-blue color. It’s the chemical method of choice. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Detecting Prints on Porous Surfaces Physical Developer is a silver-nitrate- based reagent used to develop prints when other chemical methods are ineffective. It is also useful for developing prints on porous objects that may have been wet at one time. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Detecting Prints on Porous Surfaces If one wants to use all of the three chemical methods on the same surface, it is necessary to first fume with iodine, then treat with ninhydrin, and then apply physical developer. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Preserving Prints If the object is small enough to be transported without destroying the print, it should be preserved in its entirety. A photograph must be taken before any attempts at preservation are made. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Preserving Prints Prints on large immovable objects that have been developed with a powder can best be preserved by “lifting” with a broad adhesive tape. Then the tape is placed on a properly labeled card that provides a good background contrast with the powder. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Digital Imaging Digital imaging is the process by which a picture is converted into a digital computer file. With the help of digital imaging software, fingerprints, which are often not in perfect condition, can now be enhanced for the most accurate and comprehensive analysis. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved  Digital Imaging An important and useful tool, especially for fingerprint identification, is the “compare” function that places two images side by side and allows the examiner to chart the common features on both images simultaneously. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Richard Saferstein All Rights Reserved