CCT205 Readings: Communication, Technology, and Society PDF - University Course

Week 1 - Introductions Reading 1: Carey, J. (1989), A Cultural Approach to Communication, in Communication As Culture, Taylor & Francis Group, pp. 11-28 -​ The reading explores the intricate relationship between communication, culture, and social dynamics, arguing that communication is not...

Week 1 - Introductions Reading 1: Carey, J. (1989), A Cultural Approach to Communication, in Communication As Culture, Taylor & Francis Group, pp. 11-28 -​ The reading explores the intricate relationship between communication, culture, and social dynamics, arguing that communication is not just a tool for transmitting information but a fundamental process that shapes our understanding of reality. -​ It critiques the historical focus on communication as a means for political and economic ends, suggesting that this perspective has limited our ability to use communication for personal growth, learning, and the exchange of ideas. -​ The author advocates for a ritual model of communication, which emphasizes the cultural and social contexts in which communication occurs, allowing for a deeper understanding of how we construct meaning and reality. -​ The text also highlights the dual nature of symbols in communication, where they serve as both representations "of" reality and as tools "for" creating reality. -​ This duality is illustrated through the example of a blueprint, which can represent a house as a simplified model or guide the construction of the actual house itself. -​ The author argues that our understanding of communication must account for the complexities of human experience and the ethical implications of how we communicate about communication itself. Example: -​ The author uses the example of teaching a child how to navigate from home to school, emphasizing that the child may recognize the school but lacks an understanding of the spatial relationship between the two locations. -​ This illustrates how communication, through maps or verbal instructions, can transform a child's perception of their environment, highlighting the role of symbols in shaping our understanding of reality. Week 2 - Epistemology/ cultural innovation/ seeing and saying Reading 1:Deleuze, G. (1988) Strata of Historical Formations: The Visible and the Articulable, in Foucault, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 47-69 -​ The reading delves into the intricate relationship between seeing (the visible) and speaking (the articulable), specifically in the context of Foucault's work. -​ It explores how truth, visibility, and statements interact, often in ways that are not immediately obvious or straightforward. -​ The core idea of the reading is that there is no simple correspondence between what we see and what we say. -​ Foucault argues that speaking and seeing are not isomorphic; they don't map onto each other in a direct or identical way. -​ This relationship is more complex and involves a constant interaction or struggle between the visible and the articulable. -​ One central argument is that truth doesn't exist in a vacuum but is shaped through processes of seeing and speaking. -​ Truth is inseparable from the procedures or practices that create it, which Foucault often refers to as “games of truth.” -​ These games of truth are based on practices that involve both seeing (which makes something visible) and speaking (which articulates it). -​ The relationship between seeing and speaking is not straightforward; they often exist in tension or in disjunction. -​ For example, the visible element (what we see) cannot fully be captured by what we say, and conversely, the statements we make are not simple reflections of what we see. -​ In reading, the notion of “strata” is important. -​ It refers to layers of visibility and language, where statements and visible things do not always correlate directly. -​ The interaction between the visible and the articulable happens in a space that Foucault terms the "stratum," which is a complex terrain where both seeing and speaking occur. -​ However, these elements are not on the same level. -​ The visible is something that can only be seen, while statements can only be spoken. -​ This disparity sets the stage for a type of relationship that is not necessarily harmonious but involves a constant interaction or even a struggle between the two. -​ An example from the reading is the way in which the visible and the articulable operate in psychiatry. -​ Foucault discusses how an individual’s madness may be easily visible to an observer, but articulating that madness (through language, diagnosis, etc.) can be much more difficult. -​ In one case, it’s easy to identify the madness of someone with clear symptoms, like a monomaniac, but harder to spot someone who is actually mad but doesn't show obvious signs. -​ The struggle here is between seeing and speaking, where what is visible (madness) doesn’t always align with what can be articulated (the diagnosis). -​ Furthermore, the text delves into how language and visibility intersect in specific artistic forms, particularly cinema. -​ It refers to how filmmakers like Marguerite Duras and others create a tension between voice and image. -​ In Duras's India Song, for example, the voices evoke a past event that is never shown visually, creating a disjunction between the image and the narrative. -​ The two elements (the voice and the image) do not correspond directly to each other but are linked in a subtle, often irrational way. -​ The relationship between the visible and the articulable is further complicated by the primacy of statements.  -​ Statements, according to Foucault, have the ability to determine or shape the visible. -​ This means that the visible, although seemingly independent, is actually influenced and determined by the language and statements that emerge around it. -​ This primacy of statements is what differentiates Foucault's view from others. -​ While both elements interact, it’s the statement (or discourse) that holds the determining power. -​ Finally, the text considers the role of a third agency that helps reconcile the relationship between the visible and the articulable. -​ This agency serves as a bridge between the two, allowing them to coexist in a way that doesn’t allow one to dominate the other entirely. -​ This is exemplified by Foucault's reference to the "non-place" or a space of confrontation between two opposing forces. -​ In summary, the reading offers a complex examination of the interplay between seeing and speaking, particularly in the context of truth, visibility, and discourse. -​ Foucault’s work challenges the notion that there is a simple or direct relationship between the visible and the articulable, showing that they interact in nuanced and sometimes contradictory ways. -​ Through examples from psychiatry and art, the text highlights the ways in which statements shape and determine what is visible and how this relationship operates within systems of knowledge and power. Reading 2: Deleuze, G. (1991) First Rule, in Bergsonism, New York: Zone Books, pp. 15-17 -​ In this reading, the focus is on the importance of approaching problems, especially in philosophy and other disciplines, with a critical and creative mindset. -​ The first rule argues that we often mistakenly treat problems as given, rather than questioning and creating them. -​ Society and education impose predefined problems that leave little room for true intellectual freedom. -​ The author suggests that real freedom lies in the ability to formulate problems ourselves, and in doing so, false problems disappear while true ones emerge. -​ This idea is rooted in the notion that the real task in philosophy, and beyond, is to find and state the problem, not just solve it. -​ Once a problem is properly stated, its solution already exists, even if it is hidden. -​ This view challenges the belief that problems are merely the shadows of pre-existing solutions, as seen in both mathematics and metaphysics. -​ The text aligns with Bergson’s view that the process of invention often involves the creation of the problem itself. -​ The problem, when stated correctly, carries its solution, and humanity's history can be seen as the history of constructing these problems. -​ This act of constructing problems is linked to the idea of freedom, as it enables humanity to make its own history.  -​ The complementary rule addresses two kinds of false problems: "nonexistent problems," which are based on confusion between "more" and "less," and "badly stated problems," which arise from poorly analyzed concepts. -​ Bergson gives examples of nonexistent problems, like those of non-being, disorder, or the possible, showing that they often contain elements of being, order, or reality. -​ In these cases, the problem is based on a misunderstanding or conflation of ideas, such as the confusion between absence and presence, or disorder and order. -​ Similarly, the concept of "freedom" or "intensity" can be problematic because the terms involved are not clearly analyzed, leading to false or confused problem definitions. -​ Overall, the reading argues for a deeper, more creative engagement with the way problems are formulated, urging thinkers to move beyond mere problem-solving and engage with the very act of problem creation as a key to intellectual freedom. Reading 3: Foucault, Michel (1994) Las Meninas, in The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences, New York: Vintage Books, pp. 3-16 -​ This reading explores the painting Las Meninas by Diego Velázquez, with an analysis of its complex structure and the relationships between the figures depicted within the artwork. -​ At the heart of the analysis is the theme of representation and the interplay between what is seen in the painting and how it relates to the viewer, the subjects, and the artist himself. -​ The painting centers on the Infanta, who stands at the intersection of multiple gazes. -​ The central positioning of the Infanta, with her gaze directed outward, is the focal point of the composition. -​ This is contrasted with the surrounding figures: some look at the Infanta, while others, such as Velázquez himself, are focused on the act of painting. -​ The entire scene is framed by the gaze of the viewer, the painter, and the royal couple, who are revealed indirectly through a reflection in a mirror at the back of the room. -​ The structure of the composition creates an intricate interplay between the figures within the painting, the viewer, and the absent royal figures. -​ Velázquez's own self-portrait in the painting places him as a part of this cycle of representation. -​ The gaze of the royal couple, reflected in the mirror, symbolizes their absent presence in the room, despite being central to the scene. -​ Their reflection, viewed by all the other characters in the painting, points to the relationship between the visible and the invisible, the known and the unknown, in the act of representation. -​ The reading emphasizes how the mirror serves as a device to introduce an external element into the scene, reflecting what is not directly observable within the confines of the painting.  -​ The royal couple’s reflection is not just an image of them but also an indication of the role of spectatorship in the scene—highlighting the tension between the art's purpose as both a spectacle and a representation of power. -​ The notion of absence plays a key role here, as the king and queen are not physically present in the room, but their presence is implied through the mirror, thus creating a sense of distance and invisibility within the scene. -​ The final argument made in the text is that the painting represents a reflection on representation itself, illustrating the complexity of the relationship between what is being depicted, the artist, and the viewer. -​ The painting doesn't simply show a scene; it challenges the boundaries between the real and the represented, as well as between the subject and the observer. -​ The absence of the king and queen, and the indirect reflection of them, underscores the difficulty and imperfection inherent in all acts of representation, revealing the limitations of visual art in capturing the full reality of its subjects. Reading 4: Freedman, Des (2002) A 'TECHNOLOGICAL IDIOT'? Raymond Williams and Communications Technology, Information, Communication & Society, 5:3, pp. 425-442 Overview -​ Des Freedman's article delves into the contributions of Raymond Williams to the discourse on communications technology, particularly his critique of technological determinism. -​ Williams posits that technology does not develop in a vacuum but is deeply intertwined with social, cultural, and economic factors. This perspective challenges the notion that technological advancements are the sole drivers of societal change. Key Themes 1. Critique of Technological Determinism -​ Definition: Technological determinism is the idea that technology is the primary force shaping human history and social structures. -​ Williams' Argument: Williams argues against this reductionist view, asserting that the development and application of technology are influenced by human agency, social relations, and historical contexts. He emphasizes that technology is shaped by the decisions made by individuals and institutions, rather than evolving solely based on its internal logic. 2. Materiality vs. Symbolism -​ Materiality: Williams highlights the tangible aspects of technology, asserting that it is not merely a collection of symbols or abstract ideas. He insists that the physical and practical applications of technology are crucial to understanding its impact on society. -​ Symbolic Interpretation: While acknowledging the symbolic dimensions of technology, Williams argues that these should not overshadow the material conditions that enable or constrain technological development. He seeks to demonstrate that technologies often labeled as 'symbolic' have real-world implications and consequences. 3. Democratic Communications -​ Advocacy for Democracy: Williams champions the idea that communication technologies should serve democratic purposes, facilitating public discourse and participation. He critiques the centralization of media and communication technologies, which often leads to the marginalization of diverse voices and perspectives. -​ Corporate Interests: The article discusses how corporate control over media technologies can limit the democratic potential of these tools. Williams argues that the prioritization of profit over public interest results in a media landscape that favors sensationalism and commercialism over informed public debate. 4. Contemporary Relevance -​ Digital Technologies: Freedman connects Williams' insights to contemporary digital technologies, such as the Internet and social media. He warns that while these platforms have the potential to democratize communication, they are often shaped by corporate interests that prioritize surveillance, data monetization, and algorithmic control. -​ Example: The rise of social media platforms like Facebook illustrates Williams' concerns. Initially seen as tools for democratizing communication, these platforms have increasingly become vehicles for targeted advertising, misinformation, and the manipulation of user behavior, reflecting the influence of corporate interests over democratic ideals. 5. Conclusion -​ Legacy of Williams: Freedman emphasizes the enduring relevance of Williams' work in understanding the complex relationship between technology and society. He advocates for a critical engagement with technology that considers both its material and symbolic dimensions, urging scholars and practitioners to focus on the social implications of technological advancements. -​ Call to Action: The article concludes with a call for a more equitable and democratic approach to technology, highlighting the need for public accountability and community engagement in the development and deployment of communication technologies. Example of Williams' Ideas in Action -​ Television Development: Williams discusses the evolution of television as a case study. -​ Initially, broadcasting systems were designed primarily for transmission, with little regard for the content being shared. -​ This lack of foresight led to a media environment where corporate interests dictated programming choices, often prioritizing entertainment over educational or informative content. -​ Williams argues that a socially financed system could have ensured a more diverse and representative range of programming, thereby enhancing the democratic potential of television. In summary, Freedman's article provides a thorough examination of Raymond Williams' contributions to the understanding of communications technology, emphasizing the importance of social context, democratic engagement, and critical analysis in the face of technological advancements. Week 3 - Critique of TechnoTypes: The Becoming of Technical Objects and Futurity Reading 1: Simondon, G. (2016) On the mode of existence of technical objects, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,(Introduction, pp.15-21) -​ Simondon's work delves into the intricate relationship between technical objects, human actions, and the broader context of ethics and religion. -​ He begins by discussing how technical actions are often fragmented and tied to the specific capacities of objects, which become tools or utensils. -​ This fragmentation leads to a reduplication of actions through technicity, where human actions can be mirrored by technical functions that operate through various stages. Key Concepts: 1.​ Technicity and Action: -​ Technicity introduces a breakdown of actions into elementary processes, similar to scientific methods that dissect phenomena into simpler components. -​ This approach emphasizes results over the holistic understanding of actions, leading to a focus on efficiency and technical operations rather than the unity of the human experience. 2.​ Induction and Unity: -​ Simondon critiques inductive reasoning in ethics, which seeks to construct happiness by accumulating pleasant moments, as seen in Eudaimonism and Utilitarianism. -​ He argues that this method fails to recognize the unity of life and human aspiration, reducing them to a series of isolated instances. 3.​ Passions and Desires: -​ The text discusses how Epicureanism attempts to manage desires by incorporating them into a continuous existence, treating them as elements that can be manipulated. -​ However, passions, which exceed the unity of the subject, are often eliminated from this framework, as they cannot be easily controlled or reduced. 4.​ Division of Technical and Religious Thinking: -​ Simondon identifies a fundamental division between technical and religious thinking, rooted in a primitive structure that separates figure (the content of technics) from ground (the content of religion). -​ This separation allows for the manipulation of technical objects, which are seen as detached from the world, while religious thinking maintains a connection to a limitless totality. 5.​ The Role of the Technical Object: -​ Technical objects serve as intermediaries between humans and the world, allowing for a controlled interaction that is devoid of the magical connections found in earlier forms of thought.  -​ They are analyzed and treated as discrete entities, leading to a more stable understanding of individual elements compared to the ensemble of reality. 6.​ Ethics and Results: -​ In ethics, technicity's focus on results parallels the scientific search for processes. -​ However, this results-oriented approach neglects the intention behind actions, which is crucial for a comprehensive ethical framework. -​ Simondon argues that ethical considerations should not merely be about outcomes but should also encompass the unity of the subject and the totality of actions. Example: -​ To illustrate Simondon's ideas, consider the example of a factory assembly line. -​ Each worker performs a specific task (e.g., assembling a part of a product), which represents a fragmented action that contributes to the overall production process. -​ This technical operation emphasizes efficiency and results, as each worker's action is broken down into elementary steps. -​ However, this approach may overlook the broader context of the workers' experiences, aspirations, and the unity of the final product, which is more than just the sum of its parts. -​ In contrast, a more holistic view would consider how the assembly line impacts workers' lives, their relationships, and the ethical implications of their labor, thus integrating both technical efficiency and human experience. Conclusion: -​ Simondon's exploration of technical objects reveals the limitations of a purely technical approach to understanding human existence. -​ By emphasizing the need for unity and the importance of ethical considerations, he advocates for a more integrated perspective that acknowledges the complexities of human actions and their implications in both technical and religious contexts. Reading 2: Sismondo, S. (2010) The prehistory of science and technology studies, in An Introduction to Science and Technology Studies, Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 1-11 -​ This reading critically examines the nature of science, technology, and the relationship between the two, as well as how these fields are studied in Science and Technology Studies (STS). -​ It explores various perspectives on science, focusing on its norms, structure, and authority. -​ The text begins by discussing Robert K. Merton’s view of science as a well-regulated social activity, driven by norms that promote the accumulation of knowledge. -​ These norms are seen as integral to the success of science, and Merton emphasizes that science’s authority is not based on the individuals involved but on the standards of the field itself. -​ These standards, shared by theorists such as Karl Popper and Michael Polanyi, are seen as critical to scientific progress. -​ For Merton, science’s structure rewards behaviors that advance knowledge and penalizes those that hinder it. -​ This view implies that the progress of science depends on adherence to established norms. -​ The reading also touches on different perspectives of science. -​ Positivists argue that science is about logically representing data; falsificationism emphasizes that theories must be discarded when contradicted by data; realists focus on the role of good methods in scientific progress; and functionalists highlight the importance of scientific behavior and attitudes in promoting knowledge. -​ In all these perspectives, science is framed in terms of norms that define what counts as "good" science, making science not just a practice but a system of ideals. -​ When it comes to technology, the reading explores how it is often considered an application of science. -​ In popular and academic thought, technology is seen as a straightforward application of scientific knowledge in the form of innovation that addresses practical problems. -​ However, the text critiques this linear model, which suggests that technology is limited by the current state of science. -​ Instead, it presents more complex and contested views of technology, where technology is not just applied science but has the potential to shape and influence social structures. -​ Some theorists argue that technology plays a pivotal role in determining social relations, emphasizing its power in structuring human action. -​ Lewis Mumford’s distinction between “polytechnics” and “monotechnics” offers a critical perspective on technology. -​ Polytechnics are life-oriented, producing versatile tools for a variety of human needs, while monotechnics are associated with large-scale, dehumanizing technologies that regiment human life, such as those used in modern factories. -​ Martin Heidegger further develops the idea that modern technology is characterized by its application of science in the service of power, which objectifies the world by viewing it as a collection of resources to be exploited. -​ Technology’s role in social dynamics is explored further through Jacques Ellul’s concept of technique, which emphasizes the efficiency-driven nature of modern technology. -​ This form of technological determinism suggests that technology progresses towards greater efficiency, which shapes society in increasingly deterministic ways. -​ The reading acknowledges that concerns about technology’s impact on society have given rise to critical movements such as the Radical Science Movement, which critiques technological progress and its uneven distribution of benefits and risks. -​ In response to the perceived negative impacts of technology, the Science, Technology, and Society (STS) movement emerged in the 1970s. STS scholars advocate for a more socially responsible approach to science and technology.  -​ They aim to understand and reform the practices of science and technology, ensuring they benefit the broader public and are democratically controlled. -​ STS research highlights the social nature of science, arguing that it is not just about abstract logical methods but also about the communities and practices that shape knowledge production. -​ STS emphasizes that science and technology are social activities embedded in specific communities with evolving norms and standards. -​ Scientists and engineers work within these communities, not as detached observers but as invested actors with specific goals and interests. -​ STS challenges the traditional view of science as a purely objective pursuit, instead portraying it as a dynamic and socially situated activity. -​ Knowledge is seen as a product of human interaction with the material world, shaped by both social and technical factors. -​ In sum, the reading critiques traditional views of science and technology as objective, isolated processes and instead highlights their social, constructed nature. -​ It underscores the importance of understanding the norms, values, and social structures that influence scientific and technological practices. -​ Science and technology are not merely technical processes but are deeply embedded in social relations and political contexts. -​ The study of these fields, through STS, aims to foster more responsible, democratic, and socially conscious approaches to scientific and technological development. Reading 3: Slack, J. and Macgregor, J. (2014) Culture and Technology A Primer, New York: Peter Lang Publishing.(Chapter 2,Progress: pp. 13-31) Reading 4: Carey, J. (1989), The History of the Future, in Communication As Culture, Taylor & Francis Group, pp. 133-154 -​ The article "The History of the Future" by John J. Quirk explores humanity's evolving conceptualizations of the future, linking ancient prophetic traditions to modern technological visions. -​ It emphasizes that while the idea of the future has ancient roots in oracles and astrologers, modern understandings emerge from the rise of science and exploration. -​ Quirk argues that both ancient and modern "oracles"—from astrologers to scientists—claimed exclusive knowledge of the future, using this authority to predict and influence societal organization. -​ Quirk highlights three ways the future has been portrayed in American and British culture over the past two centuries: as a symbol of optimism and progress, as the ideological fulfillment of specific narratives, and as a space defined by technological advances. -​ From 19th-century exhibitions like the Centennial in Philadelphia to 20th-century writings by futurists like Alvin Toffler, the future has been invoked to inspire hope, deflect present concerns, and legitimize existing power structures.  -​ The text critiques the inherent contradictions in futurist literature. -​ Grand visions—such as the promises of peace and ecological harmony—often mask deeper political and social issues, projecting idealized technological solutions while ignoring structural inequalities. -​ Quirk examines recurring themes in futurism, from the British imperial optimism of the 19th century to the American futurism of the 20th, which often exaggerated the transformative potential of new technologies like electricity, radio, and computers. -​ Ultimately, Quirk critiques the "futurean mirage," the illusion of a predetermined future shaped by technological imperatives, which eclipses genuine democratic engagement. -​ He calls for reconnecting the future with the past and present to avoid the passive acceptance of technocratic control. -​ By exposing the limitations of futurist predictions and their role in consolidating power, Quirk emphasizes the need for a more grounded and participatory approach to envisioning the future. Reading 5: Gidley, Jennifer M. (2017) "Technotopian or human-centred futures?," in The Future: A Very Short Introduction. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 100-115. -​ The text begins by situating the discussion of human futures within a historical and philosophical context, highlighting the contributions of thinkers like Steiner, Sri Aurobindo, and Teilhard de Chardin. -​ These figures proposed spiritual and humanistic visions of human evolution, with concepts such as the "spirit self" and "Omega Point," which contrast with the technological singularity and offer a counter-narrative to techno-transhumanism. -​ The evolution of the concept of time plays a critical role in framing these ideas. -​ From its cosmological roots in Ancient Greece, time was transformed into the mechanical, linear "factory time" of the Industrial Revolution. ‘ -​ This rigid understanding was later challenged by scientific breakthroughs such as Einstein’s theory of relativity and quantum mechanics, leading to more fluid and subjective conceptions of time. -​ Thinkers like Husserl, Heidegger, and Bergson explored notions of "subjective time," "existential time," and "durée," emphasizing time's psychological and multifaceted nature. -​ Counter-trends such as the slow movement reflect a growing resistance to the accelerated, industrialized perception of time. -​ The text also explores the idea of "conscious human-centred futures" and the evolution of human consciousness, which is seen as a precondition for collective survival. -​ Across disciplines—science, philosophy, psychology, and education—there has been a shift from fragmented, mechanistic models to integrated, holistic approaches. -​ This includes transitions in science from classical to quantum physics, in philosophy from modernism to postmodernism, and in psychology from behaviorist models to humanistic and transpersonal frameworks.  -​ Education is also evolving beyond the factory model, embracing postformal pedagogies designed for complex futures. -​ In discussing human potential, the reading highlights Michael Murphy's research on "supernormal attributes," which documents extraordinary human capacities, such as enhanced perception, self-regulation, and creativity. -​ These abilities suggest that humans have untapped potential that could rival or surpass technological enhancements. -​ The obsession with techno-enhancement, however, may distract from developing these inherent capacities, particularly in an age where issues like digital addiction are prevalent. -​ The text critiques the techno-transhumanist focus on artificial superintelligence (ASI), arguing that it overlooks the complexities of human consciousness and the higher-order reasoning described by adult developmental psychology. -​ While AI is limited to replicating formal reasoning, humans are capable of postformal reasoning, characterized by creativity, pluralism, and self-reflection. -​ Finally, the text underscores the importance of investing in the conscious evolution of human futures rather than exclusively pursuing technological advancements. -​ It concludes by advocating for a balanced approach that recognizes the vast and complex potential of human intelligence, emotion, and spirit. Week 4 - Cybernetics 1: Communication and Control Reading 1: Ashby, Ross (1956) An Introduction to Cybernetics, New York: J. Wiley (Chapter 1: What is new? pp. 1-6) -​ Cybernetics is the study of how systems—whether living beings, machines, or even societies—control and regulate themselves. -​ The term was defined by Norbert Wiener as "the science of control and communication in the animal and the machine," emphasizing that cybernetics is less about physical objects and more about how things behave and interact. -​ This perspective is important because it moves away from traditional ways of studying machines, which typically focus on their mechanical parts, and instead examines their patterns of behavior. -​ A key feature of cybernetics is that it doesn’t ask, "What is this thing made of?" but rather, "What does it do?" For example, if a variable is oscillating back and forth in a predictable way, cybernetics is concerned with the fact that this oscillation is happening, rather than whether it’s occurring in a wheel, an electric circuit, or another system. -​ This makes cybernetics a study of function and behavior rather than materials and structures. -​ Cybernetics originally developed alongside physics, but it is not dependent on the laws of physics or the properties of matter. -​ It deals with all forms of behavior that are predictable or reproducible, meaning it applies broadly to any system that follows consistent rules, regardless of whether it’s a biological organism, a computer, or an economy. -​ It also doesn’t rely on being derived from another science—cybernetics has its own independent foundations. -​ A useful analogy for cybernetics is geometry. -​ In the past, geometry was tied to physical shapes and real-world measurements, but over time, it expanded into a more abstract field that includes forms and spaces that don’t necessarily exist in the real world. -​ Similarly, cybernetics is not just about existing machines but about all possible machines. It provides a framework that organizes and explains different kinds of machines and behaviors, even if they haven’t been built yet. -​ Some might criticize cybernetics for studying hypothetical systems that don’t yet exist, but this approach has already proven useful in other sciences. -​ For example, physics studies idealized concepts like massless springs or perfectly elastic collisions, even though such things don’t exist in reality. -​ These simplified models help scientists understand real-world systems. -​ In biology, researchers study certain primitive or extinct organisms, not because they are directly useful today, but because they provide key insights into broader biological principles. -​ Cybernetics follows this same logic, identifying key types of systems that are important for understanding control and regulation, regardless of whether they happen to exist in the world around us. -​ Cybernetics also takes a different approach to studying change. In traditional biology, scientists might ask, "Why does an ovum grow into a rabbit instead of remaining an ovum?" and look for explanations in energy use, chemical reactions, and metabolism. -​ Cybernetics, however, assumes that change is inevitable (since biological systems have energy and are metabolically active) and instead asks, "Why does the ovum become a rabbit and not something else, like a fish or a malformed growth?" In other words, it focuses on the factors that shape and guide development, rather than just the energy that drives it. -​ This emphasis on patterns of control and regulation makes cybernetics especially useful for understanding complex systems, including biological organisms, brains, societies, and economies. -​ A major advantage of cybernetics is that it provides a universal language for comparing different types of systems. -​ For example, it can describe both mechanical feedback loops (such as a thermostat regulating temperature) and biological feedback mechanisms (such as the cerebellum controlling movement) in the same terms. -​ Traditionally, different fields of science have used their own specialized languages, making it difficult to see connections between them. -​ Cybernetics bridges this gap by offering a single set of concepts that apply across disciplines, allowing discoveries in one area to inform another. -​ Another major strength of cybernetics is its ability to handle complexity. -​ For centuries, science has focused on systems that are either simple or can be broken down into simpler parts. -​ This approach worked well for many problems, but it falls short when dealing with highly interconnected systems, where changing one part immediately affects many others. -​ Early scientific methods relied on isolating variables—changing one thing at a time to see its effect—but this simply doesn’t work for complex systems like brains, societies, or economies, where everything is dynamically interconnected. -​ For example, in the 1920s, the statistician Ronald Fisher showed that when studying agricultural soils, changing one factor (like soil composition) affected many other variables at the same time, making it impossible to isolate individual effects. -​ This realization forced scientists to develop new ways of analyzing complex, interdependent systems. -​ However, many areas of science continued to avoid complexity, focusing on simpler systems that were easier to study. -​ As a result, problems like mental illness, social decline, and economic instability remain difficult to address, because they involve deeply interconnected and unpredictable factors. -​ Cybernetics offers a way forward by developing scientific methods specifically designed for complex systems. -​ Instead of relying on intuition or outdated assumptions, it builds a rigorous framework for analyzing interconnected behaviors. -​ This requires starting with basic concepts—some of which might seem obvious at first—but these foundations allow cybernetics to develop into a powerful tool for understanding and controlling complex systems. -​ Ultimately, cybernetics aims to provide practical methods for tackling real-world problems, particularly those that are currently too complex for traditional scientific approaches. -​ While the field is still developing, it offers the potential to address major challenges in psychology, society, and economics by identifying what can realistically be controlled and then developing strategies that work across different cases. -​ The later parts of the book will build on these ideas, laying the groundwork for applying cybernetic principles to practical issues. Reading 2: Weiner, Norbert (1950) Cybernetic, Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 3:7, pp. 2-4 -​ Norbert Wiener's 1950 article on cybernetics explores how communication and control function in both machines and living organisms. -​ Cybernetics, derived from the Greek word for "steersman," is the study of how systems process information to maintain stability and achieve goals. -​ The key idea is that information is measurable, much like entropy in thermodynamics, but while entropy represents disorder, information represents order. -​ Wiener explains that information can be understood through probability: rarer events carry more information, and the total information in a system is linked to the number of possible alternatives it can convey. -​ A major challenge in communication is noise—random disturbances that interfere with signals. -​ Wiener describes how filters and processing techniques help remove noise, but there’s always a limit to how much a system can transmit efficiently. -​ Even in human perception, a lot of raw sensory data gets lost as it moves through different stages of processing in the brain. -​ He references the Vocoder, an early speech-processing technology, to illustrate how much information can be stripped away while still maintaining intelligibility. -​ This idea extends to human-machine interaction, particularly in compensating for lost senses. -​ Wiener discusses a tactile hearing device for the deaf that translates sound frequencies into vibrations on the skin, showing how cybernetics can bridge gaps in sensory perception. -​ Moving to machines, Wiener describes early cybernetic devices built at MIT and the Burden Neurological Institute. -​ These machines, designed with sensors and feedback mechanisms, mimic biological behavior. -​ They can move toward light, adjust their actions based on past experiences, and even exhibit signs of neurological conditions like tremors when overloaded. -​ He draws parallels between their behavior and human learning, linking cybernetics to theories like Associationism and Pavlovian conditioning. -​ Finally, Wiener challenges rigid distinctions between humans and machines. -​ He suggests that calling a machine "intelligent" or "alive" depends on definitions rather than clear-cut differences. Cybernetics, he argues, forces us to rethink what it means to think, act, and adapt. -​ His vision hints at the future of artificial intelligence, automation, and the increasingly blurred boundary between human cognition and mechanical processes. Reading 3: Yuk, Hui (2024) Why Cybernetics Now?, in Cybernetics for the 21st Century, Hanart Press, pp. 11-21 -​ Come back to this Reading 4: Triclot, Mathieu, (2024) Ontology and the Politics of Information in the First Cybernetics, in Cybernetics for the 21st Century, Hanart Press, pp. 67-84 -​ Come back to this Reading 5: Tiqqun, (2020) The Cybernetic Hypothesis, semiotext(e), pp. 21-32 and 51-60 -​ Tiqqun's The Cybernetic Hypothesis is a dense, critical examination of how cybernetics—a system of control based on feedback loops, information flows, and self-regulation—has become the dominant framework for governing society. -​ The text argues that cybernetics has effectively replaced classical liberalism as the guiding ideology of capitalism, shaping everything from economic structures to individual behavior. -​ The book traces cybernetics back to World War II, highlighting its origins as a scientific model meant to optimize efficiency and control. -​ Unlike liberalism, which relied on individual rationality and free markets, cybernetics treats society as a system of interlinked circuits where behaviors can be predicted, manipulated, and adjusted to maintain stability. -​ Tiqqun suggests that this framework has transformed governance by integrating previously separate mechanisms of control—such as police surveillance, economic planning, and psychological conditioning—into a unified system of management. -​ A key argument in the text is that cybernetics, rather than simply being a neutral technological development, functions as a "police thought" that enforces order under the guise of flexibility and self-organization. -​ It absorbs opposition, making resistance nearly impossible by co-opting it into the system itself. -​ The text critiques the way cybernetics dissolves traditional institutions like the state and the market into diffuse networks of constant monitoring and adaptation, where social control operates less through overt repression and more through subtle regulation of behavior. -​ Tiqqun also connects cybernetics to the evolution of capitalism, arguing that the economy has shifted from prioritizing wealth accumulation to prioritizing information control. -​ Markets, labor, and even human subjectivity are now governed by an endless flow of data, reinforcing a system where everything—including dissent—is processed, measured, and reintegrated into the cycle of production and governance. -​ At its core, The Cybernetic Hypothesis is not just a critique but a call to action. It rejects the idea that cybernetics should merely be analyzed or debated—it must be actively resisted.  -​ The text positions cybernetics as a totalizing force that erases human agency, but it also suggests that understanding its mechanisms is the first step toward undermining its control Week 5 - Cybernetics 2: Innovation and Creativity Reading 1: Pask, Gordon (n.d.) Pask asserts: The Wayback Machine, The Cybernetics Society, pp. 1-2 -​ Cybernetics, defined by Norbert Wiener in 1948, is the science of communication and control in both animals and machines. -​ The concept has been broadly interpreted in various contexts. In the U.S.S.R. and parts of Europe, it encompasses control theory, information processing, automaton theory, and the modeling of biological systems. -​ In the United States, it initially focused on narrower aspects like feedback systems in engineering. -​ However, over time, the field expanded to include areas like General Systems Theory, Bionics, evolutionary systems, and Artificial Intelligence (AI), with AI focusing on algorithms and heuristic programs. -​ Cybernetics aims to unify various disciplines by applying communication and control systems to both physical and symbolic entities, such as animals, brains, machines, information systems, and cognitive processes. -​ A basic cybernetic model is that of a "goal-directed system," consisting of four key parts: (1) a sensor, which monitors the system's environment; (2) a goal, the desired state of the system; (3) error detection, which measures the difference between the current and goal states; and (4) an effector, which takes action to adjust the environment to meet the goal. -​ These systems use feedback mechanisms to minimize the deviation between the actual and goal states, guiding the system toward its goal. -​ In more complex systems, the parts can be variable, and cybernetic models can also apply to abstract goals, such as solving analogies in symbolic problem-solving. -​ Furthermore, systems can interact either cooperatively or competitively, and these systems can be organized hierarchically. -​ High-level systems can instruct lower-level systems to achieve subgoals, with learning and planning occurring as the system organizes itself to address complex problems. -​ Cybernetics has both prescriptive and descriptive applications. -​ Prescriptively, it is used in the design of controllers for industrial plants, vehicles, and navigation systems, as well as in adaptive, predictive, and optimizing systems capable of responding to unpredictable environments. -​ Cybernetic models are also used in teaching and training, often involving machines that guide the learning process. -​ Descriptively, cybernetic models are applied in neurophysiology to understand brain functions, such as perceptual processes, attention mechanisms, and neural activity.  -​ In broader biology, cybernetics is used to model bodily functions, enzyme systems, and genetic instructions. -​ Cybernetics also extends into psychology, explaining behaviors and cognition as control systems, and into social systems, where it can be applied to conversations, group interactions, and population regulation. -​ On a philosophical level, cybernetics includes axiomatic approaches where postulates about systems are used to deduce system properties, such as learning or differentiation. -​ It also involves theories on simplifying complex systems without losing essential information and understanding the relevance of different cybernetic models. -​ Cybernetics draws on various other theories, such as game theory, communication theory, and information theory, to inform its mathematical and conceptual foundations. Reading 2: Pickering, Andrew (2002) Cybernetics and the Mangle: Ashby, Beer and Pask, Social Studies of Science, 32:3, pp. 413-437 -​ Andrew Pickering’s "Cybernetics and the Mangle" explores the history and significance of cybernetics by focusing on three key British cyberneticians: W. Ross Ashby, Stafford Beer, and Gordon Pask. -​ He argues that cybernetics represents a fundamentally different approach to science compared to traditional disciplines like physics or biology. -​ Instead of focusing on fixed, deterministic representations of reality, cybernetics emphasizes adaptation, feedback loops, and emergent behavior. -​ Pickering connects this to broader ideas in science and technology studies (STS), arguing that cybernetics provides a unique way of engaging with the world, one that prioritizes action and process over static knowledge. -​ He also suggests that cybernetics has an antidisciplinary impulse, crossing boundaries between science, engineering, management, art, and even spirituality. -​ Pickering begins by discussing the broader historical neglect of cybernetics, which was often overshadowed by more dominant scientific fields. -​ While early American cyberneticians like Norbert Wiener, John von Neumann, Warren McCulloch, Walter Pitts, and Claude Shannon have been widely studied, British figures like Ashby, Beer, and Pask have received less attention. He aims to correct this imbalance by highlighting their material practices, technological experiments, and conceptual innovations. -​ A key theoretical argument running through the paper is that cybernetics embodies a shift from epistemology (the study of knowledge) to ontology (the study of being and agency). Instead of merely representing the world, cyberneticians were actively engaged in creating adaptive systems that interacted with the world in unexpected ways. -​ W. Ross Ashby (1903–1972) was one of the earliest British cyberneticians and perhaps the most philosophically profound. -​ His most famous contribution was the homeostat, a machine built in the 1940s using surplus electrical components. -​ The homeostat was designed to model a self-stabilizing system—one that could adaptively reconfigure itself in response to external disturbances. -​ It consisted of interconnected electrical circuits that would randomly change their configurations until they found a stable state. -​ If stability was disrupted, the machine would keep adjusting itself until it reached a new equilibrium. -​ This concept, which Ashby called ultra stability, was a crucial insight into how biological and artificial systems might adapt to changing environments. -​ Pickering argues that Ashby’s work anticipated contemporary debates in science studies about the nature of agency. -​ Unlike traditional machines, which either function predictably or break down, the homeostat had a kind of built-in agency, responding dynamically to its environment. -​ In this sense, it was not merely a passive object but an active participant in shaping its own behavior. -​ Ashby’s ideas were deeply influential in both cybernetics and artificial intelligence, but they were eventually overshadowed by symbolic AI, which focused on logical reasoning rather than embodied adaptation. -​ Stafford Beer (1926–2002) took Ashby’s cybernetics in a more practical direction, applying it to management and organization theory. -​ Beer worked in industrial operations research and developed what he called "management cybernetics," a system for designing organizations that could dynamically respond to environmental changes. -​ His Viable System Model (VSM) was inspired by the human nervous system, with different levels of control and feedback loops ensuring adaptability and stability. Beer believed that businesses and governments should function like self-regulating cybernetic organisms, capable of evolving in response to external pressures. -​ One of Beer’s most famous projects was Cybersyn, an ambitious attempt to create a real-time cybernetic management system for the Chilean economy under socialist president Salvador Allende in the early 1970s. -​ The system used networked telex machines and a futuristic operations room to monitor economic activity and coordinate responses. -​ It was an early example of using technology for decentralized, adaptive governance. -​ However, the project was cut short by Pinochet’s military coup in 1973, and many of Beer’s collaborators were arrested or exiled. -​ Despite its failure, Cybersyn remains an important case study in applying cybernetics to large-scale political and economic systems. -​ Beer was also deeply interested in the intersection of cybernetics and spirituality, particularly Eastern philosophies. -​ His later work incorporated ideas from Buddhism and New Age thought, emphasizing holistic approaches to organization and self-regulation. -​ He even received a mystical mandala from a Buddhist monk, which influenced his management theories. -​ Pickering highlights this as an example of how cybernetics transcended traditional academic boundaries, connecting with alternative ways of thinking about control, agency, and complexity. -​ Gordon Pask (1928–1996) took cybernetics in an even stranger and more artistic direction. -​ He was fascinated by the idea of "conversation" between humans and machines, seeing technology not as a tool but as an interactive partner in creative processes. -​ His work began in the theater, where he built devices that responded dynamically to musical performances. -​ One of his most famous inventions was Musicolour, a system that generated changing light displays in response to music. -​ Crucially, Musicolour was designed to be unpredictable—it would stop responding if the performer became too repetitive, forcing them to improvise and explore new patterns. -​ Pask later expanded these ideas into educational technology, designing machines like Eucrates and SAKI, which adapted to students’ learning styles by providing customized feedback and interactive challenges. -​ He also built a series of robotic artworks, including the Colloquy of Mobiles, an installation of interacting, self-organizing robots displayed at the famous Cybernetic Serendipity exhibition in 1968. -​ These projects embodied his vision of cybernetics as an ongoing, open-ended conversation between humans, machines, and environments. -​ Pickering concludes by reflecting on the broader significance of cybernetics. -​ He argues that it provides a powerful alternative to traditional scientific approaches, one that embraces emergence, unpredictability, and the entanglement of human and nonhuman agency. -​ This perspective resonates with contemporary theories in science studies, philosophy, and artificial intelligence, particularly in fields like situated robotics and embodied cognition. -​ He also suggests that cybernetics has lessons for politics, management, and even spirituality, offering new ways to think about complex adaptive systems in the real world. -​ Ultimately, Pickering sees cybernetics as an unfinished project, one that was marginalized in the mid-20th century but remains deeply relevant today. -​ He encourages scholars and practitioners to revive and extend its insights, exploring how cybernetic ideas might inform engineering, art, business, governance, and philosophy.  -​ Rather than viewing cybernetics as a historical curiosity, he suggests that its emphasis on self-organization, feedback, and adaptive agency could help us navigate the complexities of the 21st century. Reading 3: Pickering, Andrew (2010) The Cybernetic Brain, University of Chicago Press. (Chapter 7: Gordon Pask: From Chemical Computers to Adaptive Architecture, pp. 310-377 -​ Gordon Pask was a highly unconventional and brilliant cybernetician who explored learning, adaptation, conversation, and self-organizing systems in fields ranging from theater and art to computing, education, and architecture. -​ He was born in 1928 in Derby, England, and died in 1996. -​ His family background was notable—his brother Edgar Pask, a pioneering anesthetist, conducted extreme experiments on himself during World War II, testing survival techniques by being repeatedly thrown unconscious into freezing waters. -​ This daring legacy set the stage for Gordon Pask’s own experimental and adventurous approach to science. -​ Pask’s academic journey was erratic and unconventional. -​ He briefly served in the Royal Air Force but was discharged after fainting during push-ups. -​ He studied mining engineering at Liverpool Polytechnic and later attended Cambridge University, where he pursued medicine and physiology but abandoned it to follow his passion for cybernetics and adaptive learning systems. -​ His academic credentials were scattered: a BA in physiology (1953), a PhD in psychology (1964), a DSc in cybernetics (1974), and an ScD from Cambridge (1995). He founded System Research Ltd. in 1953, an independent research lab that became his primary base instead of a traditional academic institution. -​ Pask’s personality was eccentric. -​ He liked to dress as an Edwardian dandy, often wearing a cape and bow tie. He built a bomb in school that damaged a lab, cycled between 48-hour wakefulness and 16-hour sleep, and carried a briefcase full of pills (likely amphetamines) that rattled wherever he went. -​ He was deeply loved by colleagues despite (or because of) his strangeness, and after his death, two entire journal issues were devoted to his memory. His wife Elizabeth Pask claimed he "descended from the sky in a champagne bottle, greeted by a brass band." -​ Pask’s first major cybernetic invention was Musicolour, a machine that responded to music with adaptive light displays. -​ Created in his bedroom at Cambridge, it used electrical filters and feedback loops to analyze music and control stage lighting. -​ But unlike simple light systems, Musicolour “got bored” if the performer was repetitive—it would stop responding until the musician changed their performance. -​ This forced performers to adapt dynamically, creating a real-time conversation between human and machine. Pask saw this as a model for how all learning should work. -​ Musicolour debuted at Cambridge’s Pomegranate Club and toured northern England, including a disastrous demo where it exploded in front of entrepreneur Billy Butlin. -​ It was later featured at Churchill’s Club in London and the Mecca Locarno dance hall, but its commercial potential was limited because large venues couldn’t fully utilize its interactivity. -​ Eventually, Pask shelved the project in 1957, although he continued to explore interactive art and machine learning throughout his career. -​ From Musicolour, Pask moved to adaptive training machines. -​ He developed SAKI (Self-Adaptive Keyboard Instructor) in 1956, which adjusted typing exercises based on the user’s mistakes, speeding up or slowing down as needed. It was marketed by Cybernetic Developments and evolved into modern typing tutors like Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing. -​ Another machine, Eucrates, simulated real-time trainee interactions, and Pask even tested it on Stafford Beer, who claimed he went from knowing nothing about typing to expert-level speeds in 45 minutes. -​ These projects established Pask as a pioneer in AI-driven learning systems. -​ Pask’s most ambitious theoretical work was Conversation Theory, developed in the 1970s. -​ He argued that learning is a conversation—not just between humans but also between humans and machines. -​ He built CASTE (Course Assembly System and Tutorial Environment) and Though Sticker, educational platforms where students navigated knowledge networks based on their learning style (either serial or holistic). -​ He applied these ideas at Britain’s Open University, helping to shape early e-learning methodologies. -​ Beyond education, Pask explored chemical computers, attempting to create self-organizing controllers for factories. -​ In his ferrous sulfate experiments, he demonstrated that metallic threads could "grow" like neural networks, creating adaptive learning systems without traditional programming. -​ He believed such systems could be trained by human managers before eventually taking over complex industrial decisions. -​ While these ideas were never fully realized, they anticipated modern AI and neural network approaches. -​ Pask’s work also extended to architecture and urban design. He proposed adaptive buildings that could learn from their inhabitants and dynamically adjust lighting, heating, and structure.  -​ His ideas influenced Nicholas Negroponte’s work at MIT and Cedric Price’s architectural projects, foreshadowing smart buildings and AI-driven environments. -​ Throughout his life, Pask blurred the boundaries between science, art, and philosophy. -​ He was fascinated by Buddhist and mystical ideas, once describing the mind as a "pervasive medium" in which humans were merely local fluctuations—a concept that resonated with distributed cognition theories. -​ His machines were not just tools but living systems, engaging in conversations with their users and evolving over time. -​ Ultimately, Pask rejected traditional cybernetics' focus on rigid goal-seeking systems, emphasizing instead open-ended interactions and emergent learning. -​ His legacy is vast, influencing AI, education, architecture, and interactive art, but his eccentric nature and antidisciplinary approach meant that he never fit neatly into any single field. -​ He remains one of the most imaginative yet underappreciated thinkers in cybernetics. Week 6 - Digital Capitalism, Digital Politics and Socio-Technical Futures Reading 1: Lewis, Jason, and al. - Excerpts from Indigenous Protocol and Artificial Intelligence Position Paper (Introduction pp.3-17; Guidelines for Indigenous-centred AI Design v.1 pp. 20-22; How to Build Anything Ethically Suzanne Kite in discussion with Corey Stover, Melita Stover Janis, and Scott Benesiinaabandan pp.75-84) -​ The Indigenous Protocol and Artificial Intelligence Workshops Position Paper explores how Indigenous knowledge systems can inform the development and ethical design of artificial intelligence (AI). -​ It emphasizes that Indigenous epistemologies, which prioritize relationships, kinship networks, and non-anthropocentric worldviews, can offer new perspectives on AI ethics. -​ The paper is a collective output from workshops involving Indigenous and non-Indigenous participants from various global communities, emphasizing the diversity of Indigenous perspectives and the importance of relationality, reciprocity, and responsibility in technology design. -​ It stresses that Indigenous protocols—guidelines for engaging respectfully with both human and non-human entities—can shape governance frameworks for AI systems. The paper outlines seven key guidelines for Indigenous-centered AI design: 1.​ Locality: AI should be designed in collaboration with specific Indigenous communities, reflecting local knowledge and global contexts. 2.​ Relationality and Reciprocity: AI should be seen as part of a circle of relationships, with its role defined by community protocols. 3.​ Responsibility, Relevance, and Accountability: AI systems must be accountable to the communities they serve.  4.​ Governance from Indigenous Protocols: Indigenous protocols should guide AI governance frameworks. 5.​ Cultural Nature of Technology: AI design should acknowledge that all technologies are cultural expressions. 6.​ Ethical Design Across the Stack: Ethical considerations should span the entire AI development process, from hardware to algorithms. 7.​ Data Sovereignty: Indigenous communities must control their data and how it is used. The paper also highlights specific themes from the workshops: -​ Hardware and Software Sovereignty: Indigenous control over technology development. -​ Language, Landscape, and Culture: Incorporating cultural and territorial knowledge into AI. -​ Art Practice as Value Practice: Using art to embed Indigenous values into technology design. -​ AI as Skabe (Helper): Imagining AI as a companion in a reciprocal relationship, neither servant nor master. Concrete examples discussed include -​ Indigenous-led AI projects, such as the Hua Kiʻi language revitalization app, which embeds Indigenous values in its design process. -​ The workshops also explored the potential of technologies like blockchain in supporting Indigenous governance, data sovereignty, and digital identity management. In conclusion, the paper calls for Indigenous peoples to be active participants in AI development, ensuring that emerging technologies align with their cultural values, histories, and futures. Reading 2: Designing Futurescapes" & "Designing Fiction" (2011) Blowup Reader: The Era of Objects, September 29 -​ The article Design Futurescaping by Anab Jain, Jon Ardern, and Justin Pickard discusses a hybrid design practice at the intersection of foresight and critical design. -​ This practice, referred to as “futurescaping,” is about crafting visions of the future that are not only speculative but also reflective of the complexities and nuances of contemporary society. -​ It emerged from the idea of “speculative culture,” as described by Bruce Sterling, where the imagination plays a central role in societal practices, particularly in envisioning future scenarios. -​ The term "futurescape" was first introduced by Jain in 2009, drawing from science fiction’s ability to create cognitive estrangement. -​ It’s a conceptual space, like a physical landscape, but representing a future world shaped by socio-technological novums—new, imaginary elements that differentiate one world from another. -​ The article emphasizes how these futurescapes are user-centric, collaborative, and designed to provoke new ways of thinking about the future, as opposed to the deterministic outlook of traditional planning. -​ The practice of futurescaping is informed by the anti-heroic, often countercultural visions of designers from the twentieth century, such as Superstudio, Archigram, and Ant Farm. -​ Design futurescaping is positioned as a form of activism, similar to urban acupuncture, making small-scale interventions to alter the technological imaginary. -​ It targets systems of power with tactics that are micro, low-cost, and democratic, aiming to shift public discourse and prompt behavior change. -​ The goal is not just to imagine the future but to actively influence its trajectory. -​ The concept of "thick futurescapes" is introduced, drawing inspiration from Clifford Geertz’s ethnography of "thick description." -​ Just as Geertz emphasized the importance of understanding cultural practices in their full context, futurescaping involves creating deeply detailed and plausible future scenarios. -​ For example, the film Blade Runner is used as an example of how detail in design can immerse viewers in a futuristic world. -​ This level of detail is also applied in projects like "Power of 8," where participants create detailed, personalized futurescapes to better understand the dynamics of local communities and societal interactions. -​ The article also touches on how futurescapes must account for the interconnectedness of global systems. -​ The work of sociologists like Bruno Latour and anthropologists like Arjun Appadurai is cited to show that the future is not a series of isolated events but a web of interdependencies. -​ As globalization erodes national boundaries, futurescapes must reflect this interconnectedness, offering a "network realism" that captures the complexity of future scenarios in a way that conventional designs cannot. -​ Design futurescaping employs montage as a key technique, combining various perspectives, media, and forms of presentation to reconcile the mundane with the potentialities of the future. -​ This montage approach enables designers to represent futures that are not simply utopian or dystopian but are grounded in the complexity of everyday life. -​ The technique is framed as both an aesthetic and methodological tool, borrowing from earlier avant-garde practices like those of the Russian Constructivists and Archigram, and used in participatory design projects. -​ Finally, the article highlights the role of futurescaping in public engagement.  -​ The design process is deeply collaborative, involving consultations, co-creation, and the solicitation of responses through various platforms, including social media. -​ This participatory aspect challenges traditional models of knowledge creation, where expertise is centralized and top-down. -​ The authors advocate for an open, DIY approach that empowers the public to engage directly with the design of the future, promoting a shift toward more inclusive, grassroots knowledge creation. -​ In essence, Design Futurescaping is a practice that combines speculative, detailed, and participatory design methods to imagine and influence future scenarios. -​ It challenges traditional boundaries in design and engages the public in envisioning and creating the future, with a focus on empowerment and critical intervention. Reading 3: Brooks, Lonny Avi (2015) "Playing a Minority Forecaster in Search of Afrofuturism: "Where Am I in This Future, Stewart Brand? " in Afrofuturism 2.0: The Rise of Astro-Blackness, edited by Reynaldo Anderson and Charles E. Jones. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. -​ This reading reflects a critical examination of the world of forecasting and futurism, particularly focusing on how race, culture, and identity are often marginalized or ignored in the futures created by think tanks and forecasting organizations. -​ The author, reflecting on their personal experiences as a participant-observer in the forecasting world from 1998 to 2001, critiques how futures are created predominantly by elite, mostly white, and culturally homogeneous groups. -​ These future scenarios often overlook or erase ethnic diversity, especially in terms of racial identity, in favor of utopian and post-racial ideals. -​ The author traces the roots of these biases, noting that early futurists such as those at the Institute for the Future (IFTF) in the late 1960s viewed certain social issues, particularly African-American urban anger, as internal threats. -​ This historical perspective of fear and exclusion continued into the 1990s and beyond. The author argues that the dominant narratives of the future promoted by these organizations serve to protect the status quo and perpetuate white privilege, largely ignoring multicultural and ethnic diversity. -​ Additionally, the reading critiques Stewart Brand's view of futurism, especially his dismissal of futurismists who advocate for social justice causes like feminism and multiculturalism. -​ Brand describes such futurists as being biased and politically driven, but the author counters this view, suggesting that the larger forecasting industry itself is already influenced by capitalist ideologies and elite agendas, often at the expense of addressing deep social issues like race, class, and gender. -​ The author introduces the concept of "Cultural and Critical Foresight Frames" as a way to challenge and transform the dominant futures narratives.  -​ These frames are inspired by Afrofuturism, which reimagines futures through the lens of Black culture and identity. -​ The author critiques the narrow, short-term focus of most forecasting models and calls for more inclusive, long-term thinking that takes into account diverse cultural and racial perspectives. The reading outlines three main "Foresight Frames" or scenarios to challenge traditional futurism: 1.​ Futures, Inc. Unlimited: This frame critiques the commercialization of futures, where forecasting is often driven by short-term capitalist goals and the expansion of digital technology. It argues that these futures are overly optimistic and exclude important social and cultural complexities. 2.​ Futures, Inc. Performed: This scenario sees forecasting as a performance, where future visions are enacted in a theatrical way to project moral and economic values. It highlights the power dynamics involved in shaping and presenting these futures, which often reinforce existing inequalities. 3.​ Queering Futures, Inc.: This frame proposes a radical rethinking of future scenarios by queering them—reinterpreting and critiquing existing forecasts through the lens of diversity, social justice, and Afro-futurism. It suggests that by retelling and challenging the dominant futures narratives, we can create more inclusive and equitable visions for the future. The reading concludes by emphasizing the need for a shift in how futures are conceptualized, with a call for more diverse, critical, and socially aware approaches to forecasting that include marginalized perspectives, especially those related to race, culture, and identity. The author stresses that futures should not be dictated solely by elites but should reflect a broader, more inclusive set of possibilities for all people. Reading 4: Milojevic, I. and Inayatullah, S. (2003) "Futures Dreaming: Challenges From Outside and on the Margins of the Western World," Metafuture, https://www.metafuture.org/futures-dreaming-challenges-from-outside-and-on-the-margins-of-th e-western-world -​ The reading explores how science fiction both upholds and challenges dominant cultural myths, particularly the American frontier myth. -​ Historically, American culture has framed expansion as a heroic narrative—first westward, then into space. -​ Star Wars and similar works repackage cowboy stories into space adventures, reinforcing ideas of conquest and ownership. -​ Gregory Pfitzer argues that these outdated frontier myths shape harmful self-perceptions, detach people from reality, and sustain rigid ideologies. -​ Instead, he suggests the need for new myths that reject exploitation and racism while encouraging meaningful social change. -​ The reading contrasts this with science fiction that resists traditional power structures. -​ Star Trek: Voyager and Deep Space Nine, for example, rethink old mythologies and challenge fixed identities. -​ The works of African American science fiction authors, such as Samuel Delany and Octavia Butler, go further—directly confronting capitalist, racist, and patriarchal narratives. -​ Butler, in particular, disrupts binary oppositions like human vs. alien or insider vs. outsider. -​ Instead of fearing difference, her characters must evolve by accepting it, or else face extinction. -​ She envisions aliens not as threats but as partners in mutual survival, rejecting hierarchical structures that separate self and other. -​ The reading then expands this critique to science fiction as a whole, emphasizing that fantasy and speculative fiction are never ideologically neutral. -​ They can reinforce dominant social orders or push toward transformative possibilities. The power of science fiction lies in its ability to shape imagination—its depictions of the future influence how society conceptualizes progress. -​ Yet, much of mainstream science fiction remains limited by Western, capitalist, and colonial frameworks, continuing to define "the Other" from a dominant perspective. -​ Doris Lessing argues that the rise of science fiction reflects a broader mental expansion, and she urges writers to engage with sacred and indigenous traditions as seriously as they do with scientific and technological ideas. -​ The reading supports this, emphasizing that non-Western science fiction can challenge the hegemony of Western narratives by reclaiming erased histories and imagining alternative futures. -​ However, economic barriers restrict what kinds of science fiction get published. -​ In Latin America, for example, market constraints favor short stories over novels, limiting the scope of storytelling. -​ There’s also a risk of cultural appropriation, where Western interpretations of non-Western traditions end up reinforcing colonial structures rather than dismantling them. -​ Feminist science fiction, as described by Marge Piercy, envisions societies rooted in communal care rather than isolated individualism. -​ These imagined worlds contrast sharply with capitalist realities, where economic pressures often prevent marginalized groups—such as Black women—from having the freedom to dream about the future at all. -​ Despite these challenges, the reading argues that science fiction remains a crucial site for resistance. -​ Finally, the reading calls for a more inclusive and decentralized vision of science fiction that acknowledges multiple cultural perspectives.  -​ Instead of reinforcing Western dominance, the genre should foster dialogue across civilizations, allowing different conceptions of identity, future, and humanity to emerge. -​ This is not just about science fiction but about scholarship and future studies as a whole. -​ The ability to dream about alternative futures is universal, and restricting it to one cultural framework erases the diversity of human experience. -​ To move forward, science fiction must escape its paradigmatic blinders and imagine truly global, authentic futures. Week 7 - Midterm Exam