Calalp Midterm Reviewer PDF

lOMoARcPSD|45356295 Calalp-midterm-reviewer Education (Palawan State University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected]) ...

lOMoARcPSD|45356295 Calalp-midterm-reviewer Education (Palawan State University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES Childhood - defines as the time for a boy or girl from birth until he or she is an adult. It is more circumscribed period of time from infancy to the onset of puberty. Adolescence - According to Stuart Judge, a noted educator and psychologist, adolescence is the period of transition from childhood to adulthood. Human Development: Meaning, Concepts, and Approaches Human Development - the process of growth and change that takes place between birth and Maturity. The Human Development Index (HDI) - is a summary measure of average achievement in key dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life, being knowledgeable and having a decent standard of living. PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Plasticity - The brain’s ability to change from experience. FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT Maternal Nutrition- the nutritional status of the women during adolescent Pregnancy and lactation has a direct impact on the child’s health and development. Child Nutrition- the Child’s state of nutritional balance is crucial in his early developmental age. Early Sensory Stimulation - Toys, soothing sounds and other sensorial stimulation contribute to the child’s development. Heredity and genes certainly play an important role in the transmission of physical and social characteristics from parents to off-springs. Exceptional Development Physical Disabilities- Persons with physical disabilities may experience functional, visual, orthopedic, motor, or hearing impairments, which may impact upon their ability to walk, play and learn. Linguistic and Literary Development Natural History and Language Development - Language development is a process that starts early in human life, when a person begins to acquire language by learning it as it is spoken and by mimicry. Biological Preconditions - Linguist do not all agree on what biological factors contribute to language development, however most do agree that our ability to acquire such a complicated system is specific to the human species. Second Preconditions - it is crucial that children are allowed to socially interact with other people who can vocalize and respond to questions. Bilingual Language Development 1. Simultaneous bilingualism - the child acquires two languages at the same time before the age of 3 years. 2. Sequential bilingualism - also occurs before the child is 3 years old, but the child can draw in on the knowledge and experience of first language while acquiring the second language. Exceptional Development Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 Aphasia - Aphasia (or aphmia) is a loss of the ability to produce and/or comprehend language due to injury to brain areas specialized for these functions. Dyslexia -Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that manifests primarily as a difficulty with written language, particularly with reading and spelling. Major Principles of Human Development 1. The Major Principles Governing Growth A. Cephalocaudal Principle - Growth follows a pattern that begins with the head and upper body parts and then proceeds to the rest of the body. Based on Greek and Latin roots meaning “head-to-tail.” B. Proximodistal Principle - Development proceeds from the center of the body outward. Based on the Latin words for "near" and “far.” C. Principle of Hierarchical Integration - Simple skills typically develop separately and independently. Later they are integrated into more complex skills. D. Principle of the Independence of Systems - Different body systems grow at different rates. 2. Principles of Association of Maturation and Learning - The principles of association of maturation and learning state that a human being matures as they develop biologically. A. Growth: physical size increase. B. Development: behavior changes that occur as the organism grows. C. Maturation: acquisition of new abilities based on growth and development. Approaches to Human Development 1. Traditional Perspective - Believes that individuals will show extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in late old age. 2. Life-span Approach - Believes that even in adulthood, developmental change takes place as it does during childhood. Assumptions of a life-span perspective include: A. Multidirectional - As workers age, some dimensions of functioning decline, while others improve. For example,physical stamina gradually decreases with age, but accumulated knowledge or “wisdom” tends to gradually increase. B. Plasticity – The term plasticity refers to the potential to change in response to one’s experiences. This aspect of aging is demonstrated by a growing body of research indicating that the rate of change for some abilities (e.g., physical functioning) can be affected by specific activities (e.g., regular exercise). C. Multidimentional - Three basic dimensions of the aging process are biological, cognitive, and socio- emotional. Each dimension has many sub- components (examples from the cognitive dimension include attention, working memory, and social intelligence) that interact with the other two dimensions, and is subject to some level of environmental influence. D. Contextual - The aging process is contextual. The changes that occur as workers age do not take place in a vacuum. Some important contextual settings are families, friendships, community, workplace, and society. Characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective Biological processes - involve changes in the individual’s physical nature. Cognitive processes - involve changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence, and language. Socio-emotional processes - include changes in the individual’s relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality. Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks Stages of Human Development 1. Stage 1 — Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust In the first stage of human development, infants learn to trust based on how well their caregivers meet their basic needs and respond when they cry. 2. Stage 2 — Toddlerhood: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. In addition to autonomy versus shame and doubt, another way to think of the second stage is independence versus dependence. Like in the first stage, toddlers go through this stage responding to their caregivers. If caregivers encourage them to be independent and explore the world on their own, toddlers will grow up with a sense of self-efficacy. If the caregivers hover excessively or encourage dependence, these toddlers grow up with less confidence in their abilities. 3. Stage 3 — Preschool Years: Initiative vs. Guilt During the preschool years, children learn to assert themselves and speak up when they need something. Some children may state that they’re sad because a friend stole their toy. If this assertiveness is greeted with a positive reaction, they learn that taking initiative is helpful behavior. However, if they’re made to feel guilty or ashamed for their assertiveness, they may grow up to be timid and less likely to take the lead. 4. Stage 4 — Early School Years: Industry vs. Inferiority When children begin school, they start to compare themselves with peers. If children feel they’re accomplished in relation to peers, they develop strong self-esteem. If, however, they notice that other children have met milestones that they haven’t, they may struggle with self-esteem. For example, a first grader may notice a consistently worse performance on spelling tests when compared with peers. If this becomes a pattern, it can lead to feelings of inferiority. 5. Stage 5 — Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion The adolescent stage is where the term “identity crisis” originated, and for good reason. Adolescence is all about developing a sense of self. Adolescents who can clearly identify who they are grow up with stronger goals and self-knowledge than teenagers who struggle to break free of their parents’ or friends’ influences. Adolescents who still deeply depend on their parents for social interaction and guidance may experience more role confusion than teenagers who pursue their own interests. 6. Stage 6 — Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation In young adulthood, which begins roughly at age 20, people begin to solidify their lifelong bonds; many people enter committed relationships or marriages, while others form lifelong friendships. 7. Stage 7 — Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation In middle adulthood, people tend to struggle with their contributions to society. They may be busy raising children or pursuing careers. 8. Stage 8 — Late Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair As adults reach the end of life, they look back on their lives and reflect. Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 Other Theories of Human Development A. Cognitive Development Jean Piaget developed the theory of cognitive development. Piaget’s theory is widely used in education programs to prepare teachers to instruct students in developmentally appropriate ways. The theory is based on four stages: Sensorimotor — In the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years old), children learn object permanence, which is the understanding that people and objects still exist even when they’re out of view. Preoperational — In the preoperational stage (2-7 years old), children develop symbolic thought, which is when they begin to progress from concrete to abstract thinking. Children in this stage often have imaginary friends. Concrete operational — In the concrete operational stage (7-11 years old), children solidify their abstract thinking and begin to understand cause and effect and logical implications of actions. Formal operational — In the formal operational stage (adolescence to adulthood), humans plan for the future, think hypothetically, and assume adult responsibilities. B. Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg created a theory of human development based on moral development concepts. The theory comprises the following stages: Preconventional — In the preconventional stage, people follow rules because they’re afraid of punishment and make choices only with their best interests in mind. Conventional — In the conventional stage, people act to avoid society’s judgment and follow rules to maintain the systems and structures that are already in place. Postconventional — In the postconventional stage, a genuine concern for the welfare of others and the greater good of society guides people. Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 C. Psychosexual Theory Sigmund Freud popularized the psychosexual theory. The theory comprises five stages: Oral — In the oral stage (birth to 1 year old), children learn to suck and swallow and may experience conflict with weaning. Anal — In the anal stage (1-3 years old), children learn to withhold or expel feces and may experience conflict with potty training. Phallic — In the phallic stage (3-6 years old), children discover that their genitals can give them pleasure. Latency — In the latency stage (roughly 6 years old through puberty), they take a break from these physical stages and instead develop mentally and emotionally. Genital — in the genital stage (puberty through adulthood), people learn to express themselves sexually. Ideally, children move through each phase fluidly as their sexual libidos develop, but if they’re stuck in any of the phases, they may develop a fixation that hinders their development. Freud’s Iceberg Theory 1. Unconscious – Instincts, Fears, Selfish Motives 2. Preconscious - Memory, Stored Knowledge 3. Conscious – Thoughts, Perceptions Freud’s Structure of the Human Psyche 1. Id – Instincts, the unconscious state. 2. Ego – Reality, the conscious state. 3. Superego – Morality, the moral or ethical framework that regulates how the ego operates. Summary of Sigmund Freud’s Theories 1. Unconscious mind – This is one of his most enduring ideas, which is that the mind is a reservoir of thoughts, memories and emotions that lie outside the awareness of the conscious mind. 2. Personality – Personality was made up of three key elements: the id, ego, and superego. 3. Life and death instincts – Life instincts include sexual procreation, survival, and pleasure; Death instincts include aggression, self-harm, and destruction. Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 4. Psychosexual Development – It posits that there are five stages of growth in which people’s personalities and sexual selves evolve. These phases are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stage. 5. Mechanism of defense – These mechanisms include displacement, repression, sublimation, and regression. Catharsis – is an emotional release that may bring about relief from psychological distress. D. Behavioral Theory Behaviorism – also referred to as behavioral psychology, is a school of thought that revolves around the idea that human and animal behavior are conditioned. The behavioral theory focuses solely on a person’s behaviors rather than the feelings that go alongside those behaviors. It suggests that behaviors are conditioned in an environment due to certain stimuli. Behavioral theorists believe that behavior determines feelings, so changing behaviors is important because this will in turn change feelings. JOHN BROADUS WATSON Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 John B Watson was a U.S. psychologist who is regarded as the father of behaviorism because of his publication from 1913, Psychology As The Behaviorist Views It. IVAN PETROVICH PAVLOV Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 Unlike John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov was not a trained psychologist. Still, he was interested in the same ideas as Watson and would also produce his own famous experiments related to classical conditioning. What Is Classical Conditioning? Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a type of unconscious or automatic learning. This learning process creates a conditioned response through associations between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus. In simple terms, classical conditioning involves placing a neutral stimulus before a naturally occurring reflex. One of the best-known examples of classical conditioning is Pavlov's classic experiments with dogs. Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE THORNDIKE’S LAWS OF LEARNING Connectionism theory is based on the principle of active learning and is the result of the work of the American psychologist Edward Thorndike. This work led to Thorndike’s Laws. According to these Laws, learning is achieved when an individual is able to form associations between a particular stimulus and a response. The three main laws are the Law of Readiness, the Law of Exercise, and the Law of Effect. The Law of Effect Thorndike's Law of Effect proposes that "responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation". The Law of Exercise Practice strengthens the connection, disuse weakens it The Law of Readiness If physically ready, the connection is satisfying for the organism Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 He would perform most of his studies on cats. The cats would find a lever, which would open the box. Once they obtained the fish, they were put back into the box, and once again, Dr. Thorndike would take note of how long it took for them to escape. Eventually, because the cats learned that pressing the lever had positive outcomes, they would keep doing it and would become much quicker at it. This phenomenon would become known as reinforcement. BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 The U.S. psychologist B. F. Skinner was highly influenced by John. B. Watson's work and his concept of behaviorism. Though these ideas may seem radical, Skinner is famous for his work on operant conditioning and the Law of Effect. Operant conditioning is a process in which behaviors can be learned from reinforcement and punishment, and the person or animal will make an association between the behavior and its outcome. His work would refine the earlier concepts that were developed by Thorndike, and he would also be influenced by his methodology as well. SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY Operant conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning or Skinnerian conditioning, is a learning theory in behavioral psychology. It can be used to increase or decrease the frequency of certain behaviors through the introduction of consequences. Reinforcement and punishment The two main types of behavioral modifiers in operant conditioning are called reinforcers and punishers. Reinforcement and punishment can also be further broken down into two subtypes: positive and negative. The four types of operant conditioning techniques include: 1. Positive reinforcers: the addition of a reward 2. Negative reinforcers: the removal of a punishment 3. Positive punishers: the addition of a punishment 4. Negative punishers: the removal of a reward Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 E. The attachment theory Focuses on the deep relationships between people across their lifetime. An important attachment theory finding is that children must develop at least one strong bond in childhood to trust and develop relationships as adults. JOHN BOWLBY Best known as the originator of attachment theory, which posits an innate need in very young children to develop a close emotional bond with a caregiver. Mary Salter Ainsworth In her study, children between the ages of 12 and 18 months were briefly left alone in a room while the researchers observed their reactions. They were observed when the parent and child were Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 together, when a stranger entered the room, when the parent briefly left the room, and when the parent returned. Attachment style theory Founded by psychoanalyst John Bowlby in the 1950s and expanded by Mary Ainsworth attachment theory outlines how your bond with your primary caregivers sets the foundation for how you navigate relationships throughout life. According to the theory, there are four types of attachment styles: The attachment theory comprises four stages: Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 F. Social Learning Theory ALBERT BANDURA The so Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of observing, modeling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. In 1961 Bandura carried out his famous Bobo doll experiment, a study in which researchers physically and verbally abused a clown-faced inflatable toy in front of preschool-age children, which led the children to later mimic the behaviour of the adults by attacking the doll in the same fashion. Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 Social Learning Theory In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. However, he adds two important ideas: 1. Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses. 2. Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning. The social learning theory builds upon the behavioral theory and postulates that people learn best by observing the behavior of others. They watch how others act, view the consequences, and then make decisions regarding their own behavior accordingly. The Four Stages of Observational Learning Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 In the attention stage, people first notice the behavior of others. In the retention stage, they remember the behavior and the resulting consequences. In the reproduction stage, people develop the ability to imitate the behaviors they want to reproduce, and in the motivation stage, they perform these behaviors. G. Sociocultural Theory LEV S. VYGOTSKY Psychologist Lev Vygotsky believed that parents, caregivers, peers, and the culture at large are responsible for developing the brain's higher-order functions. According to Vygotsky, human development relies on social interaction and, therefore, can differ among culture. One of Vygotsky's well-known concepts was the zone of proximal development. He defined it as "[The] distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers." Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 In other words, the zone is the gap between what a child knows and what they do not. Acquiring the missing information requires skills that a child does not yet possess or cannot use independently, but can with the help of a "more knowledgeable other." Vygotsky's "more knowledgeable other" is a person who has greater knowledge and skills than the learner. Often, this is an adult such as a parent or teacher who provides educational opportunities, such as guided instruction, within a child's zone of proximal development. Downloaded by Vanessa Gumiran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45356295 The sociocultural theory ties human development to the society or culture in which people live. It focuses on the contributions that society as a whole makes to individual human development. For example, children who are raised to play outdoors develop differently from children who are raised to play indoors. An important part of this theory is the zone of proximal development, which is an area of knowledge and skills slightly more advanced than a child’s current level. The zone of proximal development helps teachers think about and plan instruction, so sociocultural theory plays a large role in preservice teacher training. 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