CAIE AS Level Physics (9702) PDF

ZNOTES.ORG UPDATED TO 2022 SYLLABUS CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) Quantity Base Unit 1. Physical quantities and...

ZNOTES.ORG UPDATED TO 2022 SYLLABUS CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) Quantity Base Unit 1. Physical quantities and Electric Current (I ) Ampere (A) units ㅤ All units (excluding those above) can be broken down to 1.1. Physical Quantities the base units Homogeneity can be used to prove equations. An equation is homogenous if base units on left hand side are the same as base units on right hand side All physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit: ㅤ ㅤ ‎ Multiplesㅤ Multiple Prefix Symbol 10 12 Tera (T ) 10 9 Giga (G) ㅤ 10 6 Mega (M ) ㅤ 10 3 Kilo (k) Estimating Physical Quantites ㅤ ㅤㅤ Sub-multiplesㅤ Quantity Estimate Height of an adult human 2m Sub-multiple Prefix Symbol Mass of an adult human 70 kg 10 −3 Milli (m) Mass of a car 1000 kg 10 −6 Micro (n) Power of a lightbulb 60 W 10 −9 Nano (μ) Speed of sound in air 330 ms−1 10 −12 Pico (p) Speed of a car on the motorway 30 ms−1 Weight of an apple 1N 1.3. Systematic & Random errors Density of water 1000 kgm−3 ㅤ Time taken for a sprinter to run 10 s Systematic errors: 100m Constant error in one direction; too big or too small Current in a domestic appliance 13 A Cannot be eliminated by repeating or averaging E.M.F of a car battery 12 V If systematic error is small, measurement is accurate Atmospheric pressure 1.0 × 10 5 P a Accuracy: refers to degree of agreement between Young’s modulus of a given material Something × 10 11 result of a measurement and true value of quantity. Random errors: Random fluctuations or scatter about a true value 1.2. SI Units Can be reduced by repeating and averaging When random error is small, measurement is precise ㅤ Precision: refers to degree of agreement of repeated Quantity Base Unit measurements of the same quantity (regardless of Mass (m) Kilogram (kg) whether it is close to true value or not) Length (l) Meter (m) ㅤ Time (t) Second (s) ㅤ Temperature (T ) Kelvin (K ) WWW.ZNOTES.ORG CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) Calculations Involving Errorsㅤ v 2 = u 2 + 2as (v +v ) s = 12 2 ×t ​ ​ ​ For a quantity x = (5.0 ± 0.2)mm ㅤ Kinematics Absolute uncertainty Δx = ±0.2mm Δx Fractional uncertainty = x = 0.04 2.2. Kinematics concepts ​ Percentage uncertainty = Δx x × 100% = 4% ​ ㅤ ‎ Combining errors: Distance: total length moved irrespective of direction When values added or subtracted, add absolute error Displacement: distance in a certain direction 2x+y 2x−y If p = 3 or p = 3 ​,then Δp = 2Δx+Δy Speed: distance traveled per unit time, no direction ​ ​ 3 ​ When values multiplied or divided, add % errors Velocity: the rate of change of displacement When values are powered (e.g. squared), multiply Acceleration: the rate of change of velocity percentage error with power If r = 2xy3 , then Δr r ​ = Δx x ​ + 3Δy y ​ 2.3. Linear Motion ㅤ Distance: total length moved irrespective of direction Displacement: distance in a certain direction 1.4. Scalars and Vectors Speed: distance traveled per unit time, no direction Velocity: the rate of change of displacement ㅤ Acceleration: the rate of change of velocity Displacement-time graph: Scalar: has magnitude only, cannot be –ve Gradient = velocity e.g. speed, energy, power, work, mass, distance ㅤ Vector: has magnitude and direction, can be –ve e.g. displacement, acceleration, force, velocity momentum, weight, electric field strength 2.4. Non-Linear Motion Velocity-time graph: Gradient = acceleration Area under graph = change in displacement Uniform acceleration and straight-line motion equations: v = u + at A force vector can be split into it’s vertical and horizontal s = ut + 12 at2 = vt − 12 at2 ​ ​ components, which are independant on each other. s = 12 (u + v ) tv 2 = u 2 + 2as ㅤ ​ Pythagoras theorem (a2 + b2 = c 2 ) and vector Acceleration of free fall = 9.81ms-2 parallelograms can be used to add coplanar vectors. 2.5. Motion of Freefalling Bodies 2. # Kinematics equations s = ut + 12 at2 ​ v = u + at WWW.ZNOTES.ORG CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) Continues to curve as Displacement it accelerates Graph levels off as it reaches terminal velocity Continues s = ut + 12 at2 and u = 0 ; s = 12 at2 i.e h = 12 gt2 ​ ​ ​ to Velocity accelerate 2.7. Projectile motion constantly Projectile motion: uniform velocity in one direction and constant acceleration in perpendicular direction Graph curves as it decelerates and levels off to terminal velocity Acceleration Straight line Graph curves down to zero because the Horizontal motion = constant velocity (speed at which resultant projectile is thrown) force Vertical motion = constant acceleration (cause by weight equals zero of object, constant free fall acceleration) Curved path – parabolic (y ∝ x 2 ) 2.6. Determining Acceleration of Free Fall A steel ball is held on an electromagnet. When electromagnet switched off, ball interrupts a beam of light and a timer started. Component of Velocity As ball falls, it interrupts a second beam of light & timer Horizontal Vertical stopped Without air Increases at a constant Constant Vertical distance h is plotted against t2 Resistance rate WWW.ZNOTES.ORG CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) Component of Velocity Mass: is a measure of the amount of matter in a body, & is the property of a body which resists change in motion. Decreases to Increases to a constant With Air resistance Weight: is the force of gravitational attraction (exerted by zero value the Earth) on a body. 2.8. Motion of a Skydiver 3.4. Elastic Collisions Total momentum conserved Total kinetic energy is conserved Example: Two identical spheres collide elastically. Initially, X is moving with speed v and Y is stationary. What happens after the collision? 3. Dynamics 3.1. Newton’s laws of motion X stops and Y moves with speed v: (relative velocity before collision) - (relative velocity after First law: if a body is at rest it remains at rest or if it is in collisions motion it moves with a uniform velocity until it is acted on u A ​− u B ​= vB ​− vA by resultant force or torque ​ ​ ​ ​ Second law: the rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force and occurs in the 3.5. Inelastic Collisions direction of force; F = ma Third law: if a body A exerts a force on a body B , then relative speed of approach > relative speed of separation body B exerts an equal but opposite force on body A, Total momentum is conserved forming an action-reaction pair Perfectly inelastic collision: only momentum is conserved, and the particles stick together after collision (i.e. move 3.2. Momentum with the same velocity) In inelastic collisions, total energy is conserved but Ek ​​ Linear momentum: product of mass and velocity may be converted into other forms of energy e.g. heat p = mv 3.6. Collisions in Two Dimensions Force: rate of change of momentum mv − mu F = t ​ ​ Principle of conservation of linear momentum: when bodies in a system interact, total momentum remains constant provided no external force acts on the system. mA u A + mB u B = mA vA + mB vB ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 3.3. Mass and Weight Mass Weight Measured in kilograms Measured in Newtons Scalar quantity Vector quantity Constant throughout the universe Not constant W = mg WWW.ZNOTES.ORG CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) Forces on masses in gravitational fields: a region of space in which a mass experiences an (attractive) force due to the presence of another mass. Forces on charge in electric fields: a region of space where a charge experiences an (attractive or repulsive) force due to the presence of another charge. Change in momentum (impulse) affecting each sphere Upthrust: an upward force exerted by a fluid on a acts along line of impact submerged or floating object Law of conservation of momentum applies along line of Origin of Upthrust: impact Pressure on Bottom Surface > Pressure on Top Surface Components of velocities of spheres along plane of ∴ Force on Bottom Surface > Force on Top Surface impact unchanged ⇒ Resultant force upwards Frictional force: force that arises when two surfaces rub 4. Forces, Density, Pressure Always opposes relative or attempted motion Always acts along a surface Force: rate of change of momentum Value varies up to a maximum value Viscous forces: Density: mass per unit of volume of a substance Pressure: force per unit area A force that opposes the motion of an object in a fluid; Finding resultant (nose to tail): Only exists when there is motion. By accurate scale drawing Its magnitude increases with the speed of the object Using trigonometry Centre of gravity: point through which the entire weight of the object may be considered to act Couple: a pair of forces which produce rotation only To form a couple: Equal in magnitude Parallel but in opposite directions Separated by a distance dd Moment of a Force: product of the force and the perpendicular distance of its line of action to the pivot ㅤ ㅤM oment = F orce × ⊥Distance from P ivot ㅤ Torque of a Couple: the product of one of the forces of the couple and the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces. ㅤ T orque = F orce × ⊥Distance between F orces ㅤ WWW.ZNOTES.ORG CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) Conditions for Equilibrium: Elastic potential energy: this arises in a system of atoms Resultant force acting on it in any direction equals where there are either attractive or repulsive short-range zero inter-atomic forces between them. Resultant torque about any point is zero. Electric potential energy: arises in a system of charges Principle of Moments: for a body to be in equilibrium, the where there are either attractive or repulsive electric sum of all the anticlockwise moments about any point forces between them. must be equal to the sum of all the clockwise moments about that same point. 5.4. Deriving Gravitational Potential 4.2. Pressure in Fluids Energy Fluids refer to both liquids and gases W = F s & w = mg = F Particles are free to move and have EK ∴ they collide ​ ∴ W = mg.s with each other and the container. This exerts a small s in direction of force = h above ground force over a small area causing pressure to form. ∴ W = mgh Derivation of Pressure in Fluids 5.5. Deriving Kinetic Energy Volume of water =A×h W = F s & F = ma Mass of Water == density × volume = ρ × A × h ∴ W = ma.s Weight of Water == mass × g = ρ × A × h × g v 2 = u 2 + 2as ⟹ as = 1 2 2 (v ​ − u2 ) Pressure = Force ρ×A×h×g ∴ W = m. 12 (v 2 − u 2 ) Area = AreaF orce​= ​ ​ A ∴ W = 12 mv 2 ​ ​ Pressure = ρgh ​ 5.6. Internal Energy 5. Work, Energy, Power Internal energy: sum of the K.E. of molecules due to its Law of conservation of energy: the total energy of an random motion & the P.E. of the molecules due to the isolated system cannot change—it is conserved over time. intermolecular forces. Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but can Gases: k.e. > p.e change form e.g. from g.p.e to k.e Molecules far apart and in continuous motion = k.e Weak intermolecular forces so very little p.e. 5.2. Work Done Liquids: k.e. ≈ p.e. Molecules able to slide to past each other = k.e. Work done by a force: the product of the force and Intermolecular force present and keep shape = p.e. displacement in the direction of the force Solids: k.e. < p.e. \n W = F s Molecules can only vibrate ∴ k.e. very little Strong intermolecular forces p.e. high Work done by an expanding gas: the product of the pressure and the change in volume of gas 5.7. Power and Efficiency W = P ⋅ δV Power: work done per unit of time Work Done P ower = Time Taken ​ ​ Condition for formula: temperature of gas is constant The change in distance of the piston, δx, is very small Deriving it to form P = fv therefore it is assumed that P remains constant P = W.d T ​& W.d. = F s ​ ∴ P = Fs s T = F ( t )​ 5.3. Gravitational, Elastic and Electric ​ ​ ∴ P = Fv Potential Energy Efficiency: ratio of (useful) output energy of a machine to Gravitational Potential Energy: arises in a system of the input energy masses where there are attractive gravitational forces Useful Energy Ouput between them. The g.p.e of an object is the energy it Efficiency = Total Energy Input ​ × 100 possesses by virtue of its position in a gravitational field. WWW.ZNOTES.ORG CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) Measure diameter of wire using micrometer screw gauge 6. Deformation of Solids Set up arrangement as diagram: 6.1. Compressive and Tensile Forces Deformation is caused by a force Tensile force Act away from each other, object stretched out Attach weights to end of wire and measure extension Calculate Young’s Modulus using formula Compressive force 6.4. Stress, Strain and Young’s Modulus Act towards each other, object squashed Stress: force applied per unit cross-sectional area F σ= A ​in Nm-2 or Pascals ​ Strain: fractional increase in original length of wire ε = el ​no units ​ Young’s Modulus: ratio of stress to strain σ E= ε ​in Nm-2 or Pascals ​ Stress-Strain Graph: 6.2. Hooke’s Law A spring produces an extension when a load is attached According to Hooke’s law, the extension produced is proportional to the applied force (due to the load) as long as the elastic limit is not exceeded. F = ke Where k is the spring constant; force per unit extension Calculating effective spring constants: Gradient = Young’s modulus Series Parallel 1 1 1 kE ​ = k1 ​ + k2 ​ ​ kE = k1 + k2 ​ ​ ​ ​ Elastic deformation: when deforming forces removed, spring returns back to original length ​ ​ Plastic deformation: when deforming forces removed, 6.3. Determining Young’s Modulus spring does not return back to original length WWW.ZNOTES.ORG CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) Strain energy: the potential energy stored in or work done Power Intensity = Cross Sectional Area ​ by an object when it is deformed elastically I ntensity ∝ Amplitude2 Strain energy = area under force-extension graph W = 12 kΔL2 ​ 7.5. Transverse and Longitudinal waves Transverse Waves 7. Waves Oscillation of wave particles perpendicular to direction of propagation Displacement: distance of a point from its undisturbed Polarization can occur position E.g. light waves Amplitude: maximum displacement of particle from undisturbed position Period: time taken for one complete oscillation Frequency: number of oscillations per unit time 1 f= T​ ​ Wavelength: distance from any point on the wave to the next exactly similar point (e.g. crest to crest) Wave speed: speed at which the waveform travels in the direction of the propagation of the wave Progressive waves transfer energy from one position to another Longitudinal Waves 7.2. Deducing Wave Equation Oscillations of wave particle parallel to direction of Distance propagation Speed = Time ​​ Polarization cannot occur Distance of 1 wavelength is λ and time taken for this is T E.g. sound waves ∴ v = Tλ = λ ( T1 ) ​ ​ f = T1 ​so v = fλ ​ 7.3. Phase Difference Phase difference between two waves is the difference in Polarization: vibration of particles is confined in one terms of fraction of a cycle or in terms of angles (A B) direction in the plane normal to direction of propagation Wave A leads wave B by θ or Wave B lags wave A by θ 7.4. Intensity 7.6. The Doppler Effect Rate of energy transmitted per unit area perpendicular to Arises when source of waves moves relative to observer direction of wave propagation. Can occur in all types of waves, including sound & light WWW.ZNOTES.ORG CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) Source stationary relative to Observer: 8.1. Principle of Superposition When two or more waves of the same type meet at a point, the resultant displacement is the algebraic sum of the individual displacements 8.2. Interference and Coherence Interference: the formation of points of cancellation and Source moving towards Observer: reinforcement where 2 coherent waves pass each other Coherence: waves having a constant phase difference Constructive Phase difference = even λ2 ​ ​ Path difference = even λ2 ​ ​ Source moving away from Observer: Change in wavelength leads to change in frequency Observed frequency (f0 ) is different from actual ​ frequency (fs ​); related by equation: ​ fs v f0 = ​ v±vs ​ ​ ​ ​ where v is speed of wave & vs ​is speed of source relative to Destructive ​ observer Phase difference = odd \frac{\lambda}{2}2λ​ Path difference = odd \frac{\lambda}{2}2λ​ 7.7. Electromagnetic Waves As electromagnetic wave progresses, wavelength decreases and frequency increases All electromagnetic waves: All travel at the speed of light: 3 ∗ 10 8 ms− 1 Travel in free space (don’t need medium) 8.3. Two-Source Interference Can transfer energy Are transverse waves 8. Superposition WWW.ZNOTES.ORG CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) Conditions for Two-Source Interference: 8.5. Stationary Wave Experiments Meet at a point Must be of the same type Stretched String: Must have the same plane of polarization Demonstrating Two-Source Interference: String either attached to wall or attached to weight Stationary waves will be produced by the direct and Water Ripple generators in a tank reflected waves in the string. Light Double slit interference Microwaves Two microwave emitters 8.4. Formation of Stationary waves A stationary wave is formed when two progressive waves of the same frequency, amplitude and speed, travelling in Microwaves: opposite directions are superposed. A microwave emitter placed a distance away from a metal Node: region of destructive superposition where waves plate that reflects the emitted wave. always meet out of phase by π , ∴ displacement = zero By moving a detector along the path of the wave, the Antinode: region of constructive superposition where nodes and antinodes could be detected. waves meet in phase ∴ particle vibrate with max amp Air Columns: Neighboring nodes & antinodes separated by 12 λ ​ Between 2 adjacent nodes, particles move in phase and A tuning fork held at the mouth of an open tube projects a they are out of phase with the next two nodes by π sound wave into the column of air in the tube. The length can be changed by varying the water level. Stationary wave at different times: At certain lengths tube, the air column resonates This is due to the formation of stationary waves by the incident and reflected sound waves at the water surface. Node always formed at surface of water WWW.ZNOTES.ORG CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) 8.8. Double-Slit Interference 8.6. Stationary and Progressive Waves Stationary Waves Progressive Waves Stores energy Transmits energy Have nodes & antinodes No nodes & antinodes Amplitude increases from Amplitude constant along node to antinode length of the wave ax Phase change of \piπ at node No phase change λ= D​​ Where a = split separation D = distance from slit to screen 8.7. Diffraction x = fringe width Diffraction: the spreading of waves as they pass through a narrow slit or near an obstacle 8.9. Diffraction Grating For diffraction to occur, the size of the gap should be equal to the wavelength of the wave. d sin θ = nλ Where d = distance between successive slits == reciprocal of number of lines per meter θ = angle from horizontal equilibrium n = order number WWW.ZNOTES.ORG CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) λ = wavelength 9.3. Current-P.D. Relationships Comparing to double-slit to diffraction grating: Metallic Conductor Maxima are sharper compared to fringes Ohmic conductor Maxima very bright; more slits, more light through V/I constant 9. Electricity Electric current: flow of charged particles Charge at a point. product of the current at that point and the time for which the current flows, Q = It Coulomb: charge flowing per second pass a point at which the current is one ampere Charge is quantized: values of charge are not continuous they are discrete All charges are multiples of charge of 1e: 1.6x10-19C Potential Difference: two points are a potential difference of 1V if the work required to move 1C of charge between them is 1 joule Volt: joule per coulomb Filament Lamp Non-ohmic conductor W =VQ Volt ↑ V2 Temp. ↑ P = V I ; P = I 2R ; P = R ​ Vibration of ions ↑ Collision of ions with e- ↑ 9.2. Current-Carrying Conductors Resistance ↑ Electrons move in a certain direction when p.d. is applied across a conductor causing current Deriving a formula for current: I= Q Thermistor t ​ ​ Non-ohmic conductor vol. of container = LA t= L v​ Volt ↑ ​ No. of free electrons = nLA Temp. ↑ Total charge = Q = nLAq Released e- ↑ Resistance ↓ nLAq ∴I = L ​ v I = Anvq Where L = length of conductor A = cross-sectional area of conductor n = no. free electrons per unit volume q = charge on 1 electron v = average electron drift velocity WWW.ZNOTES.ORG CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) Voltage across resistor: V = IR Voltage lost to internal resistance: V = Ir = IR + Ir Thus e.m.f.: E E = I (R + r) Semi-Conductor Diode Non-ohmic conductor Low resistance in one direction and infinite resistance 10.4. Kirchhoff’s 1st Law in opposite Sum of currents into a junction IS EQUAL TO Sum of currents out of junction. Kirchhoff’s 1st law is another statement of the law of conservation of charge 10.5. Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law Sum of e.m.f.s in a closed circuit IS EQUAL TO Sum of potential differences Kirchhoff’s 2nd law is another statement of the law of conservation of energy Ohm’s law: the current in a component is proportional to the potential difference across it provided physical 10.6. Deriving Effective Resistance in conditions (e.g. temp) stay constant. Series From Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law: 10. D.C. Circuits E = ∑ IR I R = I R1 + I R2 ​ Electromotive Force: the energy converted into electrical ​ ​ Current constant therefore cancel: energy when 1C of charge passes through the power R = R1 + R2 ​\n source ​ ​ 10.7. Deriving Effective Resistance in 10.2. Potential Difference and Parallel Electromotive Force From Kirchhoff’s 1st Law: Potential difference (work done per unit charge) I = ∑I energy transformed from electrical to other forms per unit charge I = I1 + I2 ​​ ​ V V V Electromotive force (work done per unit charge) R = R1 + R2 ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ energy transformed from other forms to electrical Voltage constant therefore cancel: 1 1 1 R ​ = R1 ​ ​ + R2 ​\n ​ ​ 10.3. Internal Resistance 10.8. Potential Divider Internal Resistance: resistance to current flow within the power source; reduces p.d. when delivering current A potential divider divides the voltage into smaller parts. WWW.ZNOTES.ORG CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) Usage of a thermistor at R1: Resistance decreases with increasing temperature. Can be used in potential divider circuits to monitor and control temperatures. Usage of an LDR at R1: Resistance decreases with increasing light intensity. Can be used in potential divider circuits to monitor light intensity. 10.9. Potentiometers A potentiometer is a continuously variable potential divider used to compare potential differences Results of the experiment: Potential difference along the wire is proportional to the Most particles pass straight through length of the wire Some are scattered appreciably Can be used to determine the unknown e.m.f. of a cell Very few – 1 in 8,000 – suffered deflections > 90o This can be done by moving the sliding contact along the Conclusion: wire until it finds the null point that the galvanometer All mass and charge concentrated in the center of shows a zero reading; the potentiometer is balanced atom ∴ nucleus is small and very dense Nucleus is positively charged as α -particles are Example: E1 is 10 V, distance XY is equal to 1m. The repelled/deflected potentiometer is balanced at point T which is 0.4m from X. Calculate E2 11.2. The Nuclear Atom Nucleon number: total number of protons and neutrons Proton/atomic number: total number of protons Isotope: atoms of the same element with a different number of neutrons but the same number of protons 11.3. Nuclear Processes During a nuclear process, nucleon number, proton number and mass-energy are conserved E1 Radioactive process are random and spontaneous E2 = LL12 ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 10 1 E2 = 0.4 ​ ​ ​ ​ Random: impossible to predict and each nucleus has the E2 = 4 V ​ same probability of decaying per unit time Spontaneous: not affected by external factors such as the presence of other nuclei, temperature and pressure 11. Nuclear Physics Evidence on a graph: Random; graph will have fluctuations in count rate Spontaneous; graph has same shape even at different 11.1. Geiger-Marsden α temperatures, pressure etc. Experiment: a beam of α -particles is fired at thin gold foil 11.4. Radiations WWW.ZNOTES.ORG CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS (9702) α-particle β-particle γ-ray Proton Neutron \n β− \n β+ Helium Fast-moving Electro- Identity nucleus electron/positron magnetic \n Symbol \n 24He \n − 10e \n + 10e γ \n Charge \n + 2 \n − 1 \n + 1 0 Relative \n 4 \n 1/1840 \n 0 Mass Slow(106 V of Light(3 × 2 Up & 1 Down 1 Up & 2 Down Speed Fast(108 ms-1) ms-1) 108 ms-1) + 23 ​ + 2 3 ​ − 1 3 = ​ +1 + 23 ​ − 1 3 ​ − 1 3 ​ =0 Energy Discrete Varying Few mm of All particles have their corresponding antiparticle Stopped by Paper Few cm of lead aluminum A particle and its antiparticle are essentially the same Ionizing except for their charge High Low Very Low power Table of Antiquarks: Effect of Deflected Deflected greater Undeflected Antiquark Symbol Charge Magnetic slightly Anti-Up u - 2/3 Effect of Attracted Attracted to Anti-Down + 1/3 Electric to -ve d +ve -ve Anti-Strange s + 1/3 These antiquarks combine to similarly form respective 11.5. Types of Decays antiprotons and antineutrons α decay: loses a helium proton β − decay: neutron turns into a proton and an electron & 11.7. Particle Families electron antineutrino are emitted β + decay: proton turns into a neutron and a positron & electron neutrino are emitted γ decay: a nucleus changes from a higher energy state to a lower energy state through the emission of electromagnetic radiation (photons) 11.6. Fundamental Particles Fundamental Particle: a particle that cannot be split up into anything smaller Electron is a fundamental particle but protons and neutrons are not There are other families under Leptons Protons and neutrons are made up of different Leptons are a part of elementary particles combinations of smaller particles called quarks Table of Quarks: Quark Symbol Charge Up u + 2/3+2/3 Down d - 1/3−1/3 Strange s - 1/3−1/3 There are other families under Hadrons too Quark Models: Hadrons are a part of composite particles Proton Neutron WWW.ZNOTES.ORG CAIE AS LEVEL Physics (9702) Copyright 2022 by ZNotes These notes have been created by Bhavya Mavani for the 2022 syllabus This website and its content is copyright of ZNotes Foundation - © ZNotes Foundation 2022. All rights reserved. The document contains images and excerpts of text from educational resources available on the internet and printed books. 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