C6 Skeletal System PDF

C6 Skeletal System Dr. Irish A. Dimaculangan,MAEd.Sc.  SKELETAL SYSTEM THE SKELETAL SYSTEM Function Basics, Types, Parts and Diseases Learning objectives: At the end of the lesson, learners are expected to: 1. Learn the basic functions of the bones and describe its overall s...

C6 Skeletal System Dr. Irish A. Dimaculangan,MAEd.Sc.  SKELETAL SYSTEM THE SKELETAL SYSTEM Function Basics, Types, Parts and Diseases Learning objectives: At the end of the lesson, learners are expected to: 1. Learn the basic functions of the bones and describe its overall structure 2. Describe the bone growth and development 3. Differentiate the bone type, articulations and related diseases The Skeletal System is made up of bones and the connective tissue that holds the bone together into a framework and determines the human body’s overall shape. Skeleton – collection of bones that holds the rest of the body - from a Greek word meaning “dried up” Basic Functions Support the body Attachment of the muscles Protection of internal organs Acts as levers for movement Production of blood cells Gives stability and shape to the body  Types of Bone Cells which are responsible for maintaining the bone structure 1. Osteocytes Mature bone cells; produce the soluble factors that regulate the onset of both bone formation and resorption. 2. Osteoblasts Bone-forming cells; secrete collagen and the organic matrix of bone (osteoid), which becomes calcified soon after it has been deposited. Cont. Types of Bone Cells which are responsible for maintaining the bone structure 3. Osteoclasts Bone-destroying cells Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium * 4. Osteogenic ( or Osteoprogenitor cells) are the 'stem' cells of bone, and are the source of new osteoblasts. Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts Changes in the Human Skeleton In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone Cartilage remains in isolated areas Bridge of the nose Parts of ribs Joints Bone Growth Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during childhood New cartilage is continuously formed Older cartilage becomes ossified Cartilage is broken down Bone replaces cartilage Types of Skeleton  According to the framework of the animal body, composed of cartilage, bone, or a combination of both As to Formation As to Bone Tissue As to Location Membrane or Spongy Bone Exoskeleton Dermal Bone Tissue Endochondral or Compact Bone Endoskeleton Cartilage Bone Tissue Hydroskeleton Types of Skeleton  According to the framework of the animal body, composed of cartilage, bone, or a combination of both  As to Formation  Membrane or Dermal Bone -Formed by direct ossification in connective tissue without an intervening cartilage stage  Endochondral or Cartilage Bone -Formed by the replacement of pre-existing cartilage Terminology: Ossification is a medical term that is synonymous with bone tissue formation. Pre-cap: Cartilage is a stiff yet flexible connective tissue found in many areas, including the bones.  Types of Skeleton  According to the framework of the animal body, composed of cartilage, bone, or a combination of both  As to Kinds of Bone Tissue ▪ Spongy Bone Tissue ▪ Located at the ends and interiors of long bones ▪ Also called the bone marrow, composed of a open-lattice of bone within this lattice framework ▪ Compact Bone Tissue ▪ Surrounds the spongy bone tissue ▪ Also found at the core of bones ▪ Gives strength to withstand mechanical stress Types of Skeleton  According to the framework of the animal body, composed of cartilage, bone, or a combination of both  As to Location ▪ Exoskeleton or Dermal Skeleton ▪ Characteristics of arthropods ▪ Built up outside the body, muscles are attached to the inner surface ▪ Limits the size of the animal Recap: ARTHROPODS are invertebrates with exoskeletons: insects, centipedes, crustaceans, spiders, crabs, etc.  Types of Skeleton  According to the framework of the animal body, composed of cartilage, bone, or a combination of both  As to Location ▪ Endoskeleton ▪ Characteristics of vertebrates divided into axial and appendicular skeletons ▪ Built up inside the body surrounded by soft tissue ▪ Muscles are attached to the outer surface Pre-cap: AXIAL and APPENDICULAR, meaning the organism has a skull, ribs, backbone, legs, shoulders, arms, etc. Types of Skeleton  According to the framework of the animal body, composed of cartilage, bone, or a combination of both  As to Location ▪ Hydroskeleton ▪ Found in many soft-bodied invertebrates consisting of a fluid-filled cavity surrounded by muscles Re-cap: Some soft-bodied invertebrates having a hydroskeleton are starfish, sea urchins, jellyfish, earthworms, and the like.  Bones solid network of moist, living cells (-osteocytes), living tissue and fibers (-collagen) that are supported by matrix of calcium salts. composed of 2/3 inorganic mineral matter (-calcium phosphate), which makes bones resist passage of x-rays 1/3 organic animal matter (-collagen), which gives it resilience and flexibility Bones also contain a fiberlike protein called collagen. Collagen makes bones tough so that they can stand stress and strain. What are Bones?  Bones are what majorly make up the skeleton.  They are the most complex and versatile of all tissue because it have blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves. ▪ Bones are alive. Bones grow. But although they get bigger, their shape remains the same. Trivia: A newborn baby has around 350 bones in their body. An adult has only approximately 206 bones!  Types of Bones According to Shape  Long Bones ▪ are longer than they are wide and Works as levers. ▪ The bones of the upper and lower extremities (ex. humerus, tibia, femur, ulna, metacarpals, etc.) are of this type.  Flat Bones ▪ have broad surfaces for protection of organs and attachment of muscles (ex. ribs, cranial bones, bones of shoulder girdle). Trivia: Your thigh bone, the femur is the longest bone of your body - it's about 1/4 of your height. The smallest is the stirrup bone in the ear which can measure 1/10 of an inch.  Bone Markings - Page 119 Surface features of bones Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and ligaments Passages for nerves and blood vessels Categories of bone markings Projections and processes – grow out from the bone surface Depressions or cavities – indentations Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.9  Microscopic Anatomy of Bone Osteon (Haversian System) A unit of bone Central (Haversian) canal Opening in the center of an osteon Carries blood vessels and nerves Perforating (Volkman’s) canal Canal perpendicular to the central canal Carries blood vessels and nerves Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide  Microscopic Anatomy of Bone Figure 5.3 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide  Microscopic Anatomy of Bone Lacunae Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes) Arranged in concentric rings Lamellae Rings around the central canal Sites of lacunae Figure 5.3 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide  Microscopic Anatomy of Bone Canaliculi Tiny canals Radiate from the central canal to lacunae Form a transport system Figure 5.3 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide  Changes in the Human Skeleton In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone Cartilage remains in isolated areas Bridge of the nose Parts of ribs Joints Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.12  Bone Growth Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during childhood New cartilage is continuously formed Older cartilage becomes ossified Cartilage is broken down Bone replaces cartilage Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide  Bone Growth Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops Bones change shape somewhat Bones grow in width Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide  Long Bone Formation and Growth Figure 5.4a Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide  Types of Bones According to Shape  Short Bones ▪ Cube-shaped ▪ wrists and ankles  Irregular Bones ▪ are all others that do not fall into the previous categories. They have varied shapes, sizes, and surfaces features and include the bones of the vertebrae and a few in the skull.  Bone Composition On the surface of the bone, this thin, dense membrane contains nerves and blood vessels that help nourish bone tissue. This type of bone is strong, solid, and whitish in color. It makes up the hard, outside portion of the bone.  This type of bone is located inside the compact bone. It looks like a sponge, with bone marrow filling its spaces.  The soft bone marrow, which is found inside many bones, makes most of the red and white blood cells and platelets. BONE MARROW- soft tissues in the cavities of bones and rich in nerves and blood vessels TWO TYPES: 1. Yellow Bone Marrow- found in most bones, but primarily fills the shaft of long bones an is made up of blood vessels, nerve cells, but consists mostly of fat cells (-adipose tissue) - Serves as an energy reserve (-storage depot of fat). It can be converted into red bone marrow and produce blood cells when severe blood loss occurs. 2. Red Bone Marrow – found in spongy bone, the ends of long bones, ribs vertebrae, the sternum, and the pelvis (-flat bones) - produces red blood cells and special white blood cells called lymphocytes and other elements of blood (-platelets) Divisions of the Skeleton  The skeleton has two main parts. Axial Skeleton Appendicular Skeleton [80 Bones] [126 Bones] *skull (cranium and facial bones) *pectoral girdle (clavicles *hyoid bone (anchors and scapulae) tongue and muscles *upper limbs (arms) associated with *pelvic girdle (coxal swallowing) bones) *vertebral column *lower limbs (legs) (vertebrae and disks) *thoracic cage (ribs and sternum)  Divisions of the Skeleton AXIAL SKELETON Forms the main axis of the body Composed of the: Vertebral column Inc. the Notochord Ribs Trivia: The human hand has 27 bones Sternum while the face has only 14! Skull Divisions of the Skeleton  AXIAL SKELETON ▪ Notochord ▪ the primitive axial skeleton, replaced by the vertebral column ▪ The first skeletal element to appear in the embryo of chordates ▪ Unsegmented and composed of dense fibrous connective tissue ▪ In some vertebrates and chordates, it persists throughout life as the main axial support of the body, while in most vertebrates it is replaced by the vertebral column. Divisions of the Skeleton AXIAL SKELETON ▪Vertebral Column ▪ Commonly called back bone ▪ The main axial support of vertebrates ▪ Composed of segmentally-arranged vertebrae from the base of the skull to the tip of the tail ▪ Protects the spinal cord ▪ Provides rigidity to the body ▪ Provides direct or indirect attachment of toe appendicular skeleton Divisions of the Skeleton  AXIAL SKELETON ▪ Vertebral Column ▪ In man, there are 26 vertebrae: ▪ 7 cervical (first: atlas, second: axis) ▪ 12 thoracic ▪ 5 lumbar ▪ 1 sacral (5 fused to form the sacrum) ▪ 1 caudal vertebrae (3-5 fused to form the coccyx) Trivia: Humans and giraffes have the same number of bones in their necks. Giraffe neck vertebrae are just much, much longer.  Divisions of the Skeleton  AXIAL SKELETON ▪ Ribs ▪ Series of cartilaginous or elongated bony structures attached to the vertebrae ▪ Stout, arched structures surrounding the thoracic cavity and uniting ventrally with the sternum ▪ Forms the thoracic cage ▪ Composed of the neck, shaft and the angle Divisions of the Skeleton  AXIAL SKELETON ▪ Ribs ▪ In man, there are 12 pairs of ribs ▪ True Ribs True Ribs  first seven pairs  Directly connected to the sternum  Divisions of the Skeleton  AXIAL SKELETON ▪ Ribs ▪ In man, there are 12 pairs of ribs ▪ False Ribs  Next three pairs  Distal cartilaginous ends unite with die costal cartilages of the last true ribs False Ribs Divisions of the Skeleton  AXIAL SKELETON ▪ Ribs ▪ In man, there are 12 pairs of ribs ▪ Floating Ribs  last two pairs  Distal cartilaginous ends terminate freely Floating Ribs Ribs & Costal Cartilages Thus, there are 12 pairs (24 total) Articulate with thoracic vertebrae True ribs – (1-7) superior 7 attach to sternum via cartilage False ribs – (8-12) inferior 5 do not directly attach to sternum Floating ribs – (11-12) inferior 2 not attached to sternum at all 48  Divisions of the Skeleton  AXIAL SKELETON ▪ Sternum ▪ Commonly called breast bone ▪ Elongated structure lying in the mid-ventral region of the anterior trunk A human sternum, or breast bone. ▪ Strengthens the anterior part of the trunk ▪ Not present in snakes, limbless lizards, and turtles Divisions of the Skeleton  AXIAL SKELETON ▪ Sternum ▪ In man, there are three parts of the sternum: ▪ Manubrium  Upper part ▪ Gladiolus Notches for the  Middle or body, reception of largest part sternal ends of the upper seven costal cartilages Divisions of the Skeleton  AXIAL SKELETON ▪ Sternum ▪ In man, there are three parts of the sternum: ▪ Manubrium  Upper part ▪ Gladiolus  Middle or body, Notches for the largest part reception of sternal ends of the upper seven costal cartilages  Divisions of the Skeleton  AXIAL SKELETON ▪ Sternum ▪ In man, there are three parts of the sternum: ▪ Manubrium  Upper part Notches for the ▪ Gladiolus reception of sternal  Middle or body, ends of the upper largest part seven costal ▪ Xiphoid or ensiform cartilages process  Lowest portion  No ribs attached, but some abdominal muscles  Divisions of the Skeleton  AXIAL SKELETON ▪ Skull ▪ consists of 28 different bones (including the ossicles of the ear). ▪ Framework of the head ▪ Most complex of all parts of the endoskeleton because of its origin ▪ Cartilaginous during embryonic stage  Divisions of the Skeleton  AXIAL SKELETON ▪ Skull ▪ The skull has three main parts ▪ Cranium – the brain case ▪ Part of the skull is also the 14 facial bones, 6 ear bones and a bone at the back of the tongue. ▪ Sutures*  The skull consists of three parts, of different embryological origin—the neurocranium, the facial skeleton and sutures* The neurocranium (or braincase) forms the protective cranial cavity that surrounds and houses the brain and brainstem. The upper areas of the cranial bones form the calvaria (skullcap). The membranous viscerocranium includes the mandible.  The facial skeleton is formed by the bones supporting the face. The sutures* are fairly rigid joints between bones of the neurocranium. NOTE: The skull consists of a number of plate-like bones which are joined together by fibrous areas which allow a little bit if movement, these are called sutures. Sometimes there are other areas where the bone is not so hard or not joined well and we call these fissures (incomplete ossification). Cranium The cranial bones are: - The frontal forms part of the cranial cavity as well as the forehead, the brow ridges and the nasal cavity. - The left and right parietal forms much of the superior and lateral portions of the cranium. - The left and right temporal form the lateral walls of the cranium as well as housing the external ear. - The occipital forms the posterior and inferior portions of the cranium. Many neck muscles attach here as this is the point of articulation with the neck. - The sphenoid forms part of the eye orbit and helps to form the floor of the cranium. - The ethmoid forms the medial portions of the orbits and the roof of the nasal cavity.  Facial Bones -consists of fourteen irregular bones: >2 nasal bones >2 jawbones: mandible(lower jaw) & maxilla(upper jaw) >the cheek bones(zygomatic) >Lacrimal-medial wall of orbit >Vomer- lower nasal septum >Palatine-posterior to hard palate >Inferior nasal conchae- inner surface of nasal side wall Divisions of the Skeleton APPENDICULAR SKELETON Composed of the: Anterior pectoral appendages and girdle Posterior pectoral appendages and girdle Limbs Trivia: Nearly half of the bones in your body are found in your hands and in your feet. This makes the human hand the most advanced and amazing appendage on any animal on Earth. Divisions of the Skeleton  APPENDICULAR SKELETON ▪ Pectoral Girdle ▪ is the set of bones which connect the upper limb to the axial skeleton on each side. ▪ Parts: ▪ Scapula – shoulder blade ▪ Coracoid ▪ Clavicle - collarbone Divisions of the Skeleton  APPENDICULAR SKELETON ▪ Pelvic Girdle ▪ the irregular ring-shaped bony structure connecting the spine to the femurs ▪ Parts: ▪ ilium ▪ ischium ▪ pubis ilium pubis ischium Difference of a Male and Pelvic Girdle: Divisions of the Skeleton  APPENDICULAR SKELETON ▪ Forelimbs ▪ Parts: ▪ Humerus – upper arm ▪ Radius and Ulna – forearm humerus ▪ Carpals – wrist ▪ Metacarpals – palm ▪ Phalanges – fingers Radius and Ulna  Divisions of the Skeleton  APPENDICULAR SKELETON ▪ Hindlimbs ▪ Parts: ▪ Femur – thigh femur ▪ Tibia and Fibula – shank patella ▪ Patella – knee cap ▪ Tarsals – ankle ▪ Metatarsals – sole Tibia and Fibula ▪ Phalanges – toes THUS, Axial (80) 22 bones in skull 6 in middle ears 1 hyoid bone 26 in vertebral column 25 in thoracic cage Appendicular (126) 4 in pectoral girdle 60 in upper limbs 60 in lower limbs 2 in pelvic girdle 206 bones Associated Tissues  Matrix ▪ Non-living matter  Cartilage surrounding osteocytes and ▪ Strong, flexible material that contain large amount of makes up some parts of the collagen which gives endoskeleton in vertebrates strength to the bone matrix  Tendons  Calcium Salts ▪ A tough, solid band of ▪ Gives bone strength and connective tissue that protective functions supports and connects body parts  Bone Marrow ▪ soft tissues in the cavities of  Ligaments bones and rich in nerves and ▪ Links two bones in a joint blood vessels  Joints The place where two bones meet is called a joint. It allows the bones to move without damaging each other.  Joints  are articulations between cartilages and bones. ▪ Three Major Type of Joints: ▪ 1. SYNARTHROSES ▪ fibrous tissue or fibrous cartilage-like sutures, which are the lines of junction of the skull ▪ Immovable joints ▪ 2. AMPHIARTHROSES ▪ cartilaginous ▪ Slightly movable joints ▪ Symphisis. a joint where two long bony surfaces are connected by a broad, flat disc of fibrocartilage ▪ Synchondrosis. a temporary form of joint made of cartilage Trivia: You have over 230 moveable and semi-moveable joints in your body. Joints ▪ 3. DIARTHROSES ▪ Histologically, Synovial ▪ Free movable joints, most common joint in the body ▪ Gliding Joints (wrists, ankles, vertebrae) ▪ Hinge Joint (humerus, uulna, knee, ankle, phalanges) ▪ Condyloid Joint (wrist joint) ▪ Saddle Point (metacarpal bone of the thumb) ▪ Pivot Joint (atlas and axis, radius and ulna, hand) ▪ Ball-and-Socket Joint (head of femur, head of humerus, shoulder ) Trivia: The Shoulder Joint, a ball-and-socket joint, is the most freely movable joint in the body. Type of joints according to movement Fixed joints are fixed in place and don't move at all. Your skull has some of these joints which close up the bones of the skull in a young person's head. Moving joints are the ones that allow you to twist, bend, and move different parts of your body. Some moving joints, like the ones in your spine, move only a little. One of the main types of moving joints is called a hinge joint. Your elbows and knees each have hinge joints, which let you bend and then straighten your arms and legs.  Hinge A hinge joint allows extension and retraction of an appendage. Types of Joints according to formation Fibrous -connect bones without allowing any movement. The bones of your skull and pelvis are held together by fibrous joints. The union of the spinous processes and vertebrae are fibrous joints. Cartilaginous -are joints in which the bones are attached by cartilage. These joints allow for only a little movement, such as in the spine or ribs. Synovial - allow for much more movement than cartilaginous joints. Cavities between bones in synovial joints are filled with synovial fluid. This fluid helps lubricate and protect the bones. Most of the joints in the adult human body are freely movable joints. This type of joint is called a diarthrosis joint. There are six types of diarthrosis joints. These are: Ball-and-Socket: The ball-shaped end of one bone fits into a cup shaped socket on the other bone allowing the widest range of motion including rotation. Examples include the shoulder and hip. Condyloid: Oval shaped condyle fits into elliptical cavity of another allowing angular motion but not rotation. This occurs between the metacarpals (bones in the palm of the hand) and phalanges (fingers) and between the metatarsals (foot bones excluding heel) and phalanges (toes). Saddle: This type of joint occurs when the touching surfaces of two bones have both concave and convex regions with the shapes of the two bones complementing one other and allowing a wide range of movement. The only saddle joint in the body is in the thumb.  Ball and Socket A ball and socket joint allows for radial movement in almost any direction. They are found in the hips and shoulders.  Saddle A saddle joint allows movement back and forth and up and down, both does not allow for rotation like a ball and socket joint.  Pivot: Rounded or conical surfaces of one bone fit into a ring of one or tendon allowing rotation. An example is the joint between the axis and atlas in the neck. Hinge: A convex projection on one bone fits into a concave depression in another permitting only flexion and extension as in the elbow and knee joints. Gliding: Flat or slightly flat surfaces move against each other allowing sliding or twisting without any circular movement. This happens in the carpals in the wrist and the tarsals in the ankle  Gliding In a gliding or plane joint bones slide past each other. Midcarpal and midtarsal joints are gliding joints  Ellipsoid Ellipsoid joints are similar to a ball and socket joint. They allow the same type of movement to a lesser magnitude. The wrist is an ellipsoid joint. Pivot Pivot joints allow rotation around an axis. The neck and forearms have pivot joints. In the neck the occipital bone spins over the top of the axis. In the forearms the radius and ulna twist around each other. Diseases and Conditions of the Skeletal System Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image FRACTURE It is a complete or incomplete break in a bone. It occurs when an excessive force is applied in some manner to the bone Kinds: Treatment: Causes: Simple Reduction Car accidents Comminuted Surgery Falls Compound Sports activities Compression Greenstick Go to fullsize image Spiral Impacted Depressed  Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image BURSITIS Bursitis is a disorder that causes pain in the body's joints. It most commonly affects the shoulder and hip joints. It is caused by an inflammation of the bursa, small fluid-filled bags that act as lubricating surfaces for muscles to move over bones. This inflammation usually results from over activity of an arm or leg. Causes: Diagnosis: Types: Treatment: Injury X- ray Anterior Achilles Tendon RICE Infection CT scan Posterior Achilles Tendon Anti- inflammatory MRI Hip and pain medications Infection Type: Aspiration Elbow Ultrasound Aseptic Blood Test Knee Injection of Cortisone Septic Kneecap Antibiotic Surgical drainage Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image RICKETS The disease comes about as a result of a low amount of Vitamin D, Calcium and Phosphorus, all of which are vital to bone development. It is characterized by the improper hardening and development of bones. It could result a soft and deformed bones. Symptoms: Treatment: Bowed Legs and Arms Diet Modification Distorted Sternum Exercise Bony Bumps on the ribs Avoidance of excessive sleep Knock- Knees Playing outside with face exposed to sunlight (Children) Preventions: Vitamin D Supplements Moderate Exercise Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image KYPHOSIS It is the forward bending of the spine, also called as the hunchback It is caused by different conditions that deforms the bones of the upper part of the spine so that the person is bent forward Causes: Treatment: Syphilis Body Braces Tuberculosis Surgery Rheumatoid Arthritis Anti- inflammatory drugs Exercise Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image ARTHRITIS It is the inflammation of a bone joint. Symptoms: Location: Causes: Pain Joints Trauma Disability Joint Capsules Infections Inflammation Surrounding Tissues Rheumatic or Immune reactions Swelling Throughout the body Genetics Stiffness Treatment: Metabolic Disturbances Fatigue Exercise Tumors Types: Good Health Habits Blood Abnormalities Osteoarthritis Over- the – counter Sports injuries Medications Rheumatoid Arthritis Obesity Surgery Old age Hospitalization Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image OSTEOPOROSIS Condition in which bone matrix is lost and not replaced, resulting in an increased softening and weakening of the bones. The bones could break easily because it is weak and fragile. Bones become dotted with pits and pores. It is characterized by an abnormally high decrease in the amount of bone tissue in the skeleton. The cancellous bone loses calcium, becomes thinner and may disappear altogether. Factors to consider: Treatment: Women are at a much higher risk than men to get Hormone- Replacement Therapy the disease. Calcitonin Lifestyle could affect a person in having the disease. Calcium Supplements Race often affects the probability of developing the Vitamin D Supplements disease. Prevention: Fluorides Healthy Diet Testosterone or Anabolic Steroids Avoid Smoking and Drinking Exercise Daily Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image SCOLIOSIS It is the sideways curvature of the spine or vertebral column. Go to fullsize image This condition becomes apparent during adolescence. Go to fullsize image Causes: Birth Defects Loss of Control of the Nerves and Muscles Go to fullsize image Treatment: Not a Cause: Braces Poor Posture Surgery Diet Spinal Fusion Carrying heavy bag at one shoulder Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image SPINA BIFIDA It is the range of birth defects caused by problems with the early development of the vertebral column or spine. The main defect is an abnormal opening somewhere along the vertebral column due to a failure of the vertebrae to wrap completely around the spinal cord. It leaves the spinal cord unprotected and vulnerable to injury and infection. Treatment: Causes: Surgery Use of Alcohol Go to fullsize image Certain Medications by a pregnant woman Exposure to extreme heat Genetic Factors Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image BONE CANCER It may originate in the bones or spread there from another part of the body. Symptoms: Treatment: Localized swelling Surgery Dull ache Radiation Chemotherapy Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image SPRAIN It is an injury to a ligament or to the tissue that covers a joint. It is usually extremely painful. The injured part often swells and turns black and blue. Cause: Treatment: Excessive stretching Application of Menthol Ointment Go to fullsize image Application of Ice Rest Try not to move the affected area Keep the swollen joints elevated  Common Types of Fractures Table 5.2 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.17 Thalia convinces media that she surgically removed her ribs for a smaller waist by posing with pickled bones in a jar But it was she who had the last, maniacal laugh when she later revealed them to be animal bones, and not her own ribs at all: "Myths are a special kind of literature not written or created by a single individual but produced by the imagination and experience of an entire age and culture and can be seen as the distillation of the dreams and experiences of a whole generation."  Skeletal System Summary --your bones give your body shape -your skeleton allows you to move with the help of your muscles -your rib cage protects important internal organs -babies are born with 270 soft bones that fuse together by age 25 into 206 hard permanent bones -some bones produce red blood cells (carry oxygen) and others produce white blood cells (fight harmful bacteria in the body)  SKELETAL SYSTEM AXIAL SKELETON APPENDICULAR SKELETON Skull Spine Sternum Ribs Upper Extremities Lower Extremities Cranium cervical True ribs Pectoral Girdle Pelvic Girdle >frontal >scapula >ilium >occipital thoracic False ribs >clavicle >ischium >sphenoid >pubis >ethmoid lumbar Floating ribs >parietal >temporal sacrum manubrium Arm coccyx body >humerus Leg Facial >radius >femur >lacrimal Xiphoid process >ulna >tibia >mandible >carpals >tarsals >maxilla >metacarpals >metatarsals >vomer >phalanges >zygomatic >nasal >palatine >inferior nasal conchae Thanks and God bless -Doc Irish REFERENCES: https://www.mheducation.com/ https://cebookshop.com/ https://www.mheducation.co.uk/ https://bio.libretexts.org https://biologydictionary.net/bone-cells