Byzantines, Russians, and Turks Interact PDF

Byzantines, Russians, and Turks Interact, 500-1500 Previewing Main Ideas RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS Two world religions, Islam and Christianity, met head-to-head as Arabs and Turks battled Byzantines and then Crusaders. At the same time, disputes over doctrine split...

Byzantines, Russians, and Turks Interact, 500-1500 Previewing Main Ideas RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS Two world religions, Islam and Christianity, met head-to-head as Arabs and Turks battled Byzantines and then Crusaders. At the same time, disputes over doctrine split Christianity into competing branches. Geography What land did the Seljuk Turks occupy? CULTURAL INTERACTION Byzantine influence inspired the growth of a unique Russian culture. The Turks meanwhile adopted Islam and sponsored a rebirth of Persian ways to create a dynamic cultural blend. Geography Why might the Dnieper River have been important to Kievan Russia? EMPIRE BUILDING The Byzantines, Slavs, Arabs, Turks, and Mongols waged bloody wars to expand their territories. However, each empire also brought together people of diverse traditions. Geography How does the map indicate that there was probably conflict between the Byzantine and Seljuk empires? INTERNET RESOURCES Interactive Maps Go to classzone.com for: Interactive Visuals Research Links Maps Interactive Primary Sources Internet Activities Test Practice Primary Sources Current Events Chapter Quiz 298 299  How will you expand your empire? You are the new ruler of the Byzantine Empire. Through expansion, you hope to make the empire even greater. Military conquest is an option, as shown here in a painting of a Turkish invasion of India. Your diplomats might persuade other groups to join you. You also know that rulers of several countries outside your empire would like to see their sons or daughters marry into your family. Now you must consider the best way to enlarge your empire. EXAM I N I NG the ISSU ES What are the benefits and drawbacks of a military conquest? Why might you choose diplomacy, or intermarriage with an outside ruling family? As a class, discuss the various ways to expand an empire. What option or options will you choose? Explain your decision. As you read the chapter, think about how empires expand. 300 Chapter 11  1 The Byzantine Empire MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL Byzantine culture deeply Justinian patriarch SYSTEMS After Rome split, the influenced Orthodox Christianity, Justinian icon Eastern Empire, known as a major branch of modern Code excommunication Byzantium, flourished for a Christianity. Hagia Sophia Cyrillic alphabet thousand years. SETTING THE STAGE As you learned in Chapter 6, the Western Roman Empire crumbled in the fifth century as it was overrun by invading Germanic tribes. By this time, however, the once great empire had already undergone significant changes. It had been divided into western and eastern empires, and its capital had moved east from Rome to the Greek city of Byzantium. The city would become known as Constantinople after the emperor Constantine, who made it the new cap- ital in A.D. 330. (Byzantium would remain as the name of the entire Eastern Empire.) For nearly a thousand years after the collapse of the Western Empire, Byzantium and its flourishing capital would carry on the glory of Rome. A New Rome in a New Setting TAKING NOTES Clarifying Use a Roman leaders had divided the empire in 395, largely due to difficulties in cluster diagram to communications between the eastern and the troubled western parts of the show Justinian’s empire. Still, rulers in the East continued to see themselves as emperors for all accomplishments as of Rome. emperor of the New Rome. In 527, a high-ranking Byzantine nobleman named Justinian succeeded his ▼ A glittering uncle to the throne of the Eastern Empire. In an effort to regain Rome’s fading cross from the 11th century, glory, Justinian in 533 sent his best general, Belisarius (behl uh SAIR ee uhs), Byzantine to recover North Africa from the invading Germanic tribes. Belisarius and his Justinian Empire forces quickly succeeded. Two years later, Belisarius attacked Rome and seized it from a group known as the Ostrogoths. But the city faced repeated attacks by other Germanic tribes. Over the next 16 years, Rome changed hands six times. After numerous campaigns, Justinian’s armies won nearly all of Italy and parts of Spain. Justinian now ruled almost all the territory that Rome had ever ruled. He could honestly call himself a new Caesar. Like the last of the old Caesars, the Byzantine emper- ors ruled with absolute power. They headed not just the state but the church as well. They appointed and dismissed bishops at will. Their politics were brutal—and often deadly. Emperors lived under constant risk of assassina- tion. Of the 88 Byzantine emperors, 29 died violently, and 13 abandoned the throne to live in monasteries. Byzantines, Russians, and Turks Interact 301  Life in the New Rome A separate government and difficult communications with the West gave the Byzantine Empire its own character, different from that of the Western Empire. The citizens thought of themselves as sharing in the Roman tradition, but few spoke Latin anymore. Most Byzantines spoke Greek. Having unified the two empires, Justinian set up a panel of legal experts to reg- ulate Byzantium’s increasingly complex society. The panel combed through 400 years of Roman law. It found a number of laws that were outdated and contradic- Vocabulary tory. The panel created a single, uniform code known as the Justinian Code. After A code is a general its completion, the code consisted of four works. system of laws, and it stems from the 1. The Code contained nearly 5,000 Roman laws that were still considered Latin word codex, useful for the Byzantine Empire. meaning “book.” 2. The Digest quoted and summarized the opinions of Rome’s greatest legal thinkers about the laws. This massive work ran to a total of 50 volumes. 3. The Institutes was a textbook that told law students how to use the laws. 4. The Novellae (New Laws) presented legislation passed after 534. The Justinian Code decided legal questions that regulated whole areas of Byzantine life. Marriage, slavery, property, inheritance, women’s rights, and crim- inal justice were just some of those areas. Although Justinian himself died in 565, his code served the Byzantine Empire for 900 years. Creating the Imperial Capital While his scholars were creating the legal code, Justinian launched the most ambitious public building program ever seen in the Roman world. He rebuilt the crumbling fortifications of Constantinople, as workers constructed a 14-mile stone wall along the city’s coastline and repaired the massive fortifications along its western land border. Constantinople, A.D. 550 Gate of Church of Charisius St. Salvator Go in Chora Cistern ld en s Cistern siu H rn do at o eo Mo Ri rL Church of Harbor of Th ve yc the Apostles Aq Phosphorion of us ne ue ll Wa nti du ct st a C on Forum of Forum of Cistern the Ox Constantine Hagia of Forum of Sophia Wall Moat Theodosius Augusteum se Forum of Hippodrome Me Arcadius Great Harbor of Harbor of Palace Theodosius Julian Golden Sea Wall Gate 0 0.5 Mile Sea of Marmara 0 1 Kilometer GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps Human-Environment Interaction What aspects of Constantinople ▲ The Ortakoy Mosque towers above modern- might slow an invasion from the west? day Constantinople, now called Istanbul. 302 Chapter 11  Church building, however, was the emperor’s greatest passion. Justinian viewed churches as the most visible sign of the close connection between church and state in his empire. The crowning glory of his reign was Hagia Sophia (HAY ee uh soh FEE uh), which means “Holy Wisdom” in Greek. A church of the same name had been destroyed in riots that swept Constantinople in 532. When Analyzing Motives Justinian rebuilt Hagia Sophia, many visitors hailed it as the most splendid church Why do you in the Christian world. think governments As part of his building program, Justinian enlarged his palace into a vast complex. so often build mag- He also built baths, aqueducts, law courts, schools, and hospitals. By the time the nificent buildings like Hagia Sophia? emperor was finished, the city teemed with an almost visible excitement. Beneath such excitement, a less obvious but vitally important activity took place: the preservation of Greco-Roman culture. Byzantine families valued educa- tion—specifically classical learning. Basic courses for Byzantine students focused on Greek and Latin grammar, and philosophy. The classics of Greek and Roman literature served as textbooks. Students memorized Homer. They learned geometry from Euclid, history from Herodotus, and medicine from Galen. The modern world owes Byzantine scholars a huge debt for preserving many of the great works of Greece and Rome. Constantinople’s Hectic Pace The main street running through Constantinople was the Mese (MEHS ee), or “Middle Way.” Merchant stalls lined the main street and filled the side streets. Products from the most distant cor- ners of Asia, Africa, and Europe passed through these stalls. Everywhere, food stands filled the air with the smell of their delicacies, while acrobats and street musicians performed. Meanwhile, citizens could enjoy free entertainment at the Hippodrome, which offered wild chariot races and perfor- mance acts. The Hippodrome (from Greek words meaning “horse” and “racecourse”) held 60,000 spectators. Fans of the different teams formed rowdy gangs named for the colors worn by their heroes. In 532, two such fan groups sparked citywide riots called the Nika Rebellion (because the mob cried “Nika!” or Empress Theodora “Victory!”). Both sides were angry with the government. 500–548 They felt that city officials had been too severe in putting The most powerful woman in down a previous riot of Hippodrome fans. They packed the Byzantine history rose from deep poverty. Early in life, Theodora was Hippodrome and demanded the overthrow of Justinian. an actress. Eventually, she met Belisarius, however, broke in with his troops and slaughtered Justinian, and in 525, they married. about 30,000 rebels. As empress, Theodora met with Justinian had considered fleeing during the Nika Rebellion, foreign envoys, wrote to foreign but his wife, Theodora, urged him to stay. As her husband’s leaders, passed laws, and built steely adviser, Theodora had immense power. She rallied churches. During one political crisis, Theodora even confiscated the Justinian to remain in the capital with a fiery speech: property of the general Belisarius. After she died in 548, Justinian was PRIMARY SOURCE so depressed that he passed no My opinion is that now is a poor time for flight, even though it major laws for the rest of his reign. bring safety. For any man who has seen the light of day will also die, but one who has been an emperor cannot endure to be a fugitive. If now you wish to go, Emperor, nothing prevents RESEARCH LINKS For more on you. There is the sea, there are the steps to the boats. But take Empress Theodora, go to care that after you are safe, you do not find that you would classzone.com gladly exchange that safety for death. THEODORA, quoted by Procopius in History of the Wars Byzantines, Russians, and Turks Interact 303  The Empire Falls After Justinian’s death in 565, the empire suffered countless setbacks. There were street riots, religious quarrels, palace intrigues, and foreign dangers. Each time the empire moved to the edge of collapse, it found some way to revive—only to face another crisis. The Plague of Justinian The first crisis actually began before Justinian’s death. It was a disease that resembled what we now know as the bubonic plague. This hor- rifying illness hit Constantinople in the later years of Justinian’s reign. The plague probably arrived from India on ships infested with rats. Historians estimate that in 542, the worst year of the plague, 10,000 people were dying every day. The illness Making broke out repeatedly until around 700, when it finally faded. By that time, it had Inferences destroyed a huge percentage of the Byzantine population. How might the plague have helped Attacks from East and West From the very start of its rise to power, Byzantium make Byzantium faced constant challenges from foreign enemies. Lombards overran Justinian’s more vulnerable to conquests in the west. Avars, Slavs, and Bulgars made frequent raids on the north- foreign attack? ern borders. The powerful Sassanid Persians attacked relentlessly in the east. The Persians and Avars struck against Constantinople itself in 626. With the rise of Islam, Arab armies attacked the city in 674 and once again in 717. Russians attempted invasions of the city three times between 860 and 1043. In the 11th cen- tury, the Turks took over the Muslim world and fought their way slowly into Byzantine territory. The Byzantines used bribes, diplomacy, political marriages, and military power to keep their enemies at bay. In the seventh century, Emperor Heraclius reorganized the empire along military lines. Provinces became themes, or military districts. Each theme was run by a general who reported directly to the emperor. These strategies, however, could not work forever. Slowly, the Byzantine Empire shrank under the impact of foreign attacks. By 1350, it was reduced to the tip of Anatolia and a strip of the Balkans. Yet thanks to its walls, its fleet, and its strategic location, Constantinople held out for another 100 years. Finally, the city fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Church Divides During the Byzantine Empire, Christianity underwent a dramatic development. Christianity had begun to develop differently in the Western and Eastern Roman Empires, due largely to the distance and lack of contact between the two regions. As the Eastern Empire became Byzantium and flourished, those differences grew and ultimately split apart the Church. A Religious Split Eastern Christianity built its heritage on the works of early Church fathers. One was Saint Basil, who, around 357, wrote rules for the life of monks. ▼ Saint Basil Here, Saint Basil describes how monks and Christians should behave: PRIMARY SOURCE The Christian should not be ostentatious [showy] in clothing or sandals, for all this Analyzing is idle boasting. He should wear cheap clothes according to the need of the body. Primary Sources He should consume nothing beyond what is necessary or which tends to How might extravagance, for all this is abuse. He should not strive for honour nor always Saint Basil view a seek the first place. Each one should hold all men above himself. He should not lavish and extrava- be disobedient.... He should not be desirous of money, nor treasure up gant lifestyle? unnecessary things to no avail. He who approaches God ought to embrace poverty in all things, and be pierced with the fear of God. SAINT BASIL, quoted in The Letters 304 Chapter 11 Roman Catholicism and ROMAN CATHOLIC AND EASTERN ORTHODOX Eastern Orthodoxy DATA U.S. state with highest Originally, Christianity had one church. Because of political conflicts and percentage of Roman differences in belief, the western and eastern parts of the Christian Church Catholics: Rhode Island, split apart in 1054. The western church became the Roman Catholic Church, 51 percent. 2001 American Religious and the eastern church became the Eastern Orthodox Church. Identification Survey by Graduate Both churches believe in the gospel of Jesus and in the Bible as interpreted Center of City University of New York by their church. They also believe that God uses sacraments to convey his love U.S. states with highest to humans. Sacraments are visible signs of something sacred; for instance, the percentage of Eastern Orthodox: New Hampshire water used in baptism is a sign of God’s power to cleanse people of sin. The and New Jersey, 0.90 percent Venn diagram below shows other similarities and differences. each. 1990 National Survey of Religious Identification The 11th Century: Comparing Two Churches Vatican City is an independent state located in Rome, Italy. The Roman Catholic Church Roman Catholic Eastern Orthodox claims more than a billion Similarities members worldwide. Services are Services are conducted in Concise Columbia Encyclopedia, third conducted in Latin. They base their faith Greek or local languages. edition; www.adherents.com on the gospel of The pope has Jesus and the Bible. The patriarch and other The largest of the Eastern authority over all bishops head the Church Orthodox churches is the other bishops. They use sacraments as a group. Russian Orthodox Church. It such as baptism. The pope claims The emperor claims claims 90 million members authority over all Their religious authority over the patriarch worldwide. kings and emperors. leaders are priests and other bishops of the www.adherents.com and bishops. empire. Priests may not marry. In 2003, the world region They seek to convert Priests may be married. with the largest population Divorce is not people. Divorce is allowed under of Roman Catholics: permitted. certain conditions. Latin America, 473,000,000 Encyclopaedia Britannica Book of the Year 2004 In 2003, the world region with Leaders of the Two Churches the largest population of Eastern Orthodox members: Pope Benedict XVI (right) is Europe, 158,450,000 the supreme head of the Encyclopaedia Britannica Book of the Roman Catholic Church. Year 2004 Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew (left) holds a slightly different position in the Orthodox Church. Eastern Orthodox churches pay him their highest honors because he heads the ancient Church 1. Forming and Supporting Opinions of Constantinople, but they What do you think was the most do not consider him their important issue dividing the two supreme authority. churches? Explain your answer. See Skillbuilder Handbook, page R20. 2. Making Predictions Do you think the schism between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern RESEARCH LINKS For more on Roman Catholicism Orthodox Church will ever be healed and Eastern Orthodoxy, go to classzone.com and the two churches reunited? Why or why not? 305  Another significant figure was Saint John Chrysostom (KRIHS uhs tuhm). As bishop of Constantinople from 398 to 404, Chrysostom was the patriarch (PAY tree AHRK), or leading bishop of the East. But even the patriarch bowed to the emperor. A controversy that tested the emperor’s authority over reli- gious matters broke out in the eighth century. In 730, Emperor Leo III banned the use of icons, religious images used by Eastern Christians to aid their devotions. The emperor viewed the use of icons as idol worship. People responded with riots, and the clergy rebelled. In the West, the pope became involved in this eastern dispute and supported the use of icons. One pope even ordered the excommunication of a Byzantine emperor—that is, he ▲ (top) An 11th- declared the emperor to be an outcast from the Church. In 843, more than 100 years century silver after the controversy began, Empress Theodora restored icons to Eastern churches. chalice displays Differences between the Eastern and Western churches, continued to grow. In 1054, the Cyrillic matters came to a head when the pope and the patriarch excommunicated each other alphabet. (bottom) A in a dispute over religious doctrine. Shortly afterward, Christianity officially split closeup of the between the Roman Catholic Church in the West and the Orthodox Church in the East. alphabet reveals Byzantine Missionaries Convert the Slavs As West and East grew apart, the two its likeness to English. traditions of Christianity competed for converts. Missionaries from the Orthodox Church, for example, took their form of Christianity to the Slavs, groups that inhab- ited the forests north of the Black Sea. Two of the most successful Eastern mission- aries, Saint Methodius and Saint Cyril (SEER uhl), worked among the Slavs in the ninth century. Cyril and Methodius invented an alphabet for the Slavic languages. With an alphabet, Slavs would be able to read the Bible in their own tongues. Many Slavic languages, including Russian, are now written in what is called the Cyrillic (suh RIHL ihk) alphabet. As these missionaries carried out their work, the Slavs themselves were creating a culture that would form one of history’s most influential countries: Russia. SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. Justinian Justinian Code Hagia Sophia patriarch icon excommunication Cyrillic alphabet USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. In your opinion, was Justinian 3. How did the Byzantines help to 6. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS Do you agree or a great leader? Why or why preserve Greco-Roman culture? disagree with the characterization of Justinian as a new not? 4. What various methods did the Caesar? Why? Byzantines use to hold off their 7. ANALYZING MOTIVES Why do you think Justinian decided enemies? the time had come to reform Roman law? 5. Why did Eastern Christians 8. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Why do you think the Justinian rebel against Emperor Leo III Code lasted so long? Justinian in 730? 9. WRITING ACTIVITY RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS Imagine you are a Byzantine missionary attempting to convert a group of Slavs. Write a speech that you would give to the group in order to sway them. CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A LIST Locate the Cyrillic alphabet and make a list of what, if any, letters resemble their English counterparts. Discuss with the class why this might be. 306 Chapter 11  2 The Russian Empire MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES EMPIRE BUILDING Russia grew Early Russia was separated from Slavs Alexander out of a blending of Slavic and the West, leading to a difference Vladimir Nevsky Byzantine cultures and adopted in culture that still exists today. Yaroslav the Ivan III Eastern Orthodox traditions. Wise czar SETTING THE STAGE In addition to sending its missionaries to the land of the Slavs during the ninth century, Byzantium actively traded with its neighbors to the north. Because of this increased interaction, the Slavs began absorbing many Greek Byzantine ways. It was this blending of Slavic and Greek traditions that eventually produced Russian culture. Russia’s Birth TAKING NOTES Recognizing Effects Use Russia’s first unified territory originated west of the Ural Mountains in the a chart to show how region that runs from the Black Sea to the Baltic Sea. Hilly grasslands are found Mongol rule affected in the extreme south of that area. The north, however, is densely forested, flat, different parts of and swampy. Slow-moving, interconnecting rivers allow boat travel across these Russian society. plains in almost any direction. Three great rivers, the Dnieper (NEE puhr), the Nobles Church Don, and the Volga, run from the heart of the forests to the Black Sea or the Caspian Sea. (See the map on page 308.) In the early days of the Byzantine Empire, these forests were inhabited by tribes of Slavic farmers and traders. They spoke similar languages but had no Moscow People Princes political unity. Sometime in the 800s, small bands of adventurers came down among them from the north. These Varangians, or Rus as they were also called, were most likely Vikings. (The name “Russia” is taken from this group.) Eventually, these Vikings built forts along the rivers and settled among the Slavs. Slavs and Vikings Russian legends say the Slavs invited the Viking chief Rurik to be their king. So in 862, he founded Novgorod (NAHV guh rahd), Russia’s first important city. That account is given in The Primary Chronicle, a history of Russia written by monks in the early 1100s. Around 880, a nobleman from Novgorod named Oleg moved south to Kiev (KEE ehf), a city on the Dnieper River. From Kiev, the Vikings could sail by river and sea to Constantinople. There they could trade for products from distant lands. Kiev grew into a principality, a small state ruled by a prince. As it did, the Viking nobles intermarried with their Slavic subjects and adopted many aspects of Slavic culture. Gradually, the line between Slavs and Vikings vanished. Kiev Becomes Orthodox In 957, a member of the Kievan nobility, Princess Olga, paid a visit to Constantinople and publicly converted to Christianity. From 945 to 964, she governed Kiev until her son was old enough to rule. Her son Byzantines, Russians, and Turks Interact 307  The Viking Invasions of resisted Christianity. However, soon Eastern Europe, 820-941 after Olga’s grandson Vladimir (VLAD uh meer) came to the throne about 980, 24°E 8°E 16°E 32°E 40°E 48° 56° he considered conversion to Christianity. E E The Primary Chronicle reports that Vladimir sent out teams to observe the Norwegians ga R. major religions of the times. Three of Vol the teams returned with lukewarm ti c S e a 58°N Novgorod Swedes W. Dvin accounts of Islam, Judaism, and West- aR B al Danes. ern Christianity. But the team from ma KIEVAN Byzantium told quite a different story: Ne n R. RUS SAXONY V on D Od i s t u l a R. R. PRIMARY SOURCE El er Kiev be D ni The Greeks led us to the [buildings] where R. eper R. 50°N R. they worship their God, and we knew not BAVARIA whether we were in heaven or on earth. Area of Viking control For on earth there is no such splendor or Viking invasions such beauty, and we are at a loss how to describe it. We only know that God dwells D Black Sea there among men, and... we cannot a n u b e R. Ad ia forget that beauty. ti c r 42°N Se Rome a Constantinople from The Primary Chronicle BY ZA NTIN E EMPIRE Aegean This report convinced Vladimir to Sea convert to Byzantine Christianity and to 0 500 Miles make all his subjects convert, too. In Cyprus Crete 989, a baptism of all the citizens of Kiev 0 1,000 Kilometers 34°N was held in the Dnieper River. Kiev, GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps already linked to Byzantium by trade, 1. Human-Environment Interaction Which geographical feature now looked to the empire for religious of Russia did Vikings use to further their invasions? 2. Human-Environment Interaction Besides east, what was the guidance. Vladimir imported teachers to other basic direction taken by Vikings in their Eastern instruct the people in the new faith. All European invasions? Why do you think they chose to invade in the beliefs and traditions of Orthodox Analyzing Motives that direction? Christianity flourished in Kiev. Vladimir Why might Vladimir think it appreciated the Byzantine idea of the important that all emperor as supreme ruler of the Church. So the close link between Church and his subjects state took root in Russia as well. become Christian? Kiev’s Power and Decline Thanks to its Byzantine ties, Kiev grew from a cluster of crude wooden forts to the glittering capital of a prosperous and educated people. The rise of Kiev marked the appearance of Russia’s first important unified territory. Kievan Russia Vladimir led the way in establishing Kiev’s power. He expanded his state west into Poland and north almost to the Baltic Sea. He also fought off troublesome nomads from the steppes to the south. In 1019, Vladimir’s son Yaroslav the Wise came to the throne and led Kiev to even greater glory. Like the rulers of Byzantium, Yaroslav skillfully married off his daughters and sisters to the kings and princes of Western Europe. Those marriages helped him to forge important trading alliances. At the same time, he created a legal code tailored to Kiev’s commercial culture. Many of its rules dealt with crimes against property. Yaroslav also built the first library in Kiev. Under his rule, Christianity prospered. By the 12th century, Kiev was home to some 400 churches. 308 Chapter 11  Kiev’s Decline The decline of the Kievan state started with the death of Yaroslav in 1054. During his reign, Yaroslav had made what turned out to be a crucial error. He had divided his realm among his sons, instead of following the custom of passing on the throne to the eldest son. Upon their father’s death, the sons tore the state apart fighting for the choicest territories. And because this system of dividing the king- dom among sons continued, each generation saw new struggles. The Crusades—the numerous clashes between Christians and Muslims for control of the Holy Lands of the Middle East that began in 1095—added to Kiev’s troubles by disrupting trade. Then, just when it seemed that things could not get worse, a new threat emerged. The Mongol Invasions In the middle 1200s, a ferocious group of horsemen from central Asia slashed their Vocabulary way into Russia. These nomads were the Mongols. (See Chapter 12.) They had Khan is the Mongol exploded onto the world scene at the beginning of the 1200s under Genghis Khan word for “ruler.” (JEHNG gihs KAHN), one of the most feared warriors of all time. The Mongols may have been forced to move out by economic or military pressures. They may have been lured by the wealth of cities to the west. Whatever their reasons for leaving, they rode their swift horses across the steppes of Asia and on into Europe. Their savage killing and burning won them a reputation for ruthless brutality. When Genghis Khan died in 1227, his suc- cessors continued the conquering that he had begun. At its fullest extent, the Mongol Empire stretched from the Yellow Sea to the Baltic Sea and from The Khanate of the the Himalayas to northern Russia. Golden Horde, 1294 In 1240, the Mongols attacked and e Arctic Circl demolished Kiev. They rode under the 60° E E 80° E 40° °E Novgorod 20 leadership of Batu Khan, Genghis’s INS grandson. So many inhabitants were Moscow NTA Vladimir Ob R Kiev RUSSIAN. 60° N slaughtered, a Russian historian reported, OU PRINCIPALITIES D n ie pe URAL M that “no eye remained to weep.” A Roman R. Do n R ga l Vo rR Catholic bishop traveling through Kiev. Ir. tys KHANATE OF THE five years later wrote, “When we passed hR GOLDEN HORDE B l a ck S e a. through that land, we found lying in the Constantinople CA Sarai UC field countless heads and bones of dead M AS OU S Ca Seljuk Aral US TA people.” After the fall of Kiev, Mongols yr Turks Sea spian Sea Lake N Dar Balkhash ruled all of southern Russia for 200 years. IN ya Tabriz S Eu The empire’s official name was the Tigr phr C H A G A T A I 40° N Maragheh is R. a “Khanate of the Golden Horde”: Khanate, KHANATE tes Jerusalem. ILKHANATE R from the Mongol word for “kingdom”; Baghdad (PERSIA) Golden, because gold was the royal color HI of the Mongols; and Horde, from the M AL AY AS Mongol word for “camp.” Khanate of the Golden Horde R. at its greatest extent DELHI us Mongol Rule in Russia Under Mongol Other land controlled by In d SULTANATE Mongols rule, the Russians could follow all their Capital 0 500 Miles usual customs, as long as they made no 0 1,000 Kilometers attempts to rebel. As fierce as they were, GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps the Mongols tolerated all the religions in 1. Location About how many miles did the Khanate of the their realms. The Church, in fact, often Golden Horde stretch from east to west? acted as a mediator between the Russian 2. Region What role might geography have played in the people and their Mongol rulers. Delhi Sultanate’s escape from Mongol rule? Byzantines, Russians, and Turks Interact 309  Resisting Mongol Rule Rebelling Against the Mongols Although Russians by and large obeyed their Mongol rulers, Resistance against Mongol rule occasionally broke out into pockets of resistance existed, shown by this 1259 diary open rebellion, as this account from an anti-Mongol upris- entry of a resident of Novgorod. ing in Tver in 1327 indicates. PRIMARY SOURCE PRIMARY SOURCE The same winter the accursed raw-eating Tartars The lawless Shevkal, the destroyer of Christianity,... [Mongols], Berkai and Kasachik, came with their wives, came to Tver, drove the Grand Prince from his court and and many others, and there was great tumult in entrenched himself there with great haughtiness and Novgorod, and they did much evil in the province, violence.... The entire city assembled and the uprising taking contribution for the accursed Tartars. And the was in the making. The Tverians cried out and began to accursed ones began to fear death; they said to [Prince] kill the Tartars wherever they found them until they Alexander: ‘Give us guards, lest they kill us.’ And the killed Shevkal and the rest [of his men]. They missed Knayz ordered the son of Posadnik and all the sons of killing the messengers who were with the horses that the Boyars to protect them by night. The Tartars said: grazed in the meadow [outside the city]. They [the ‘Give us your numbers for tribute or we will run away messengers] saddled their best horses and swiftly and return in greater strength.’ And the common people galloped to Moscow and from there to the [Golden] would not give their numbers for tribute but said: ‘Let Horde, where they brought the news of the death of us die honourably for St. Sophia and for the angelic Shevkal. houses.’ Tver Eyewitness Account, from Medieval Russia Resident of Novgorod, from Medieval Russia DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS 1. Comparing In what way did the reasons for the uprisings in Novgorod and Tver differ? 2. Making Predictions Based on what you have read about the Mongols, what do you think their response was to the above events of resistance and rebellion? The Mongols demanded just two things from Russians: absolute obedience and massive amounts of tribute, or payments. By and large, the Russian nobles agreed. Novgorod’s prince and military hero Alexander Nevsky, for example, advised his fellow princes to cooperate with the Mongols. The Russian nobles often crushed revolts against the Mongols and collected oppressive taxes for the foreign rulers. Mongol rule isolated the Russians more than ever from their neighbors in Western Europe. This meant that among other things, the Russians had little access to many new ideas and inventions. During this period, however, forces were at work that eventually would lead to the rise of a new center of power in the country, and to Russia’s liberation. Russia Breaks Free The city of Moscow was first founded in the 1100s. By 1156, it was a crude village protected by a log wall. Nonetheless, it was located near three major rivers: the Volga, Dnieper, and Don. From that strategic position, a prince of Moscow who could gain control of the three rivers could control nearly all of European Russia— Analyzing Issues and perhaps successfully challenge the Mongols. What about Moscow’s location Moscow’s Powerful Princes A line of Russian princes eventually emerged on the was significant? scene who would do just that. During the late 1320s, Moscow’s Prince Ivan I had earned the gratitude of the Mongols by helping to crush a Russian revolt against Mongol rule. For his services, the Mongols appointed Ivan I as tax collector of all the Slavic lands they had conquered. They also gave him the title of “Grand Prince.” Ivan had now become without any doubt the most powerful of all Russian princes. He also became the wealthiest and was known as “Ivan Moneybag.” 310 Chapter 11  Ivan convinced the Patriarch of Kiev, the leading bishop of Eastern Europe, to move to Moscow. The move improved the city’s prestige and gave Moscow’s princes a powerful ally: the Church. Ivan I and his successors used numerous strategies to enlarge their territory: land pur- chases, wars, trickery, and shrewd marriages. From gener- ation to generation, they schemed to gain greater control over the small states around Moscow. An Empire Emerges The Russian state would become a genuine empire during the long, 43-year reign of Ivan III. Upon becoming the prince of Moscow, Ivan openly chal- lenged Mongol rule. He took the name czar (zahr), the Russian version of Caesar, and publicly claimed his intent Ivan III to make Russia the “Third Rome.” (The title “czar” 1440–1505 became official only during the reign of Ivan IV.) Those around him often viewed Ivan as cold, calculating, and ruthless. This In 1480, Ivan made a final break with the Mongols. may have been due in part to a diffi- After he refused to pay his rulers further tribute, Russian cult upbringing. Ivan came of age and Mongol armies faced each other at the Ugra River, during a time of great civil strife in about 150 miles southwest of Moscow. However, neither Russia. His father, Grand Prince Vasali side advanced to fight. So, after a time, both armies turned II, was at one point imprisoned and around and marched home. Russians have traditionally blinded by opposition forces. Ivan’s cautious and calculating marked this bloodless standoff as their liberation from style drew criticism from Russians Mongol rule. After this liberation, the czars could openly eager for more bold and swift action pursue an empire. against the Mongols. Even a close Such a defeat for the Mongols would have seemed aide questioned his tactics. “Would impossible nearly two centuries earlier, as they pushed you surrender Russia to fire and west from present-day China and crushed nearly every- sword?” he asked the prince. After Russian forces won the standoff at thing in their path. One of the peoples whom they con- the Ugra River, however, such quered back then was a new group that had risen to power criticism turned to praise. in Central Asia—the Turks. SECTION 2 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. Slavs Vladimir Yaroslav the Wise Alexander Nevsky Ivan III czar USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Which group fared the worst 3. How did Yaroslav’s decision to 6. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS How did Vladimir’s conversion to under Mongol rule? divide his realm among his Christianity affect Kiev? sons help cause Kiev’s decline? 7. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS Do you approve Nobles Church 4. What main demands did the of Nevsky’s cooperation with the Mongols? Was his policy Mongols make on their Russian practical or cowardly? Explain. subjects? 8. ANALYZING ISSUES How was Ivan I both friend and foe People Moscow 5. How did Ivan III lead the to the Mongol rulers? Princes Russians to their independence 9. WRITING ACTIVITY EMPIRE BUILDING Imagine you are a from the Mongols? reporter for a major Russian newspaper. Write a headline and lead paragraph about Ivan III’s standoff with Mongol forces at the Ugra River and its aftermath. INTERNET ACTIVITY Use the Internet to create a photo gallery of modern-day Moscow. INTERNET KEYWORD Possible subjects include the city’s architecture, street scenes, and Moscow photos people. Byzantines, Russians, and Turks Interact 311 Russian Religious Art and Architecture Russian religious art follows an ancient tradition dating back to the early Church. At first, Christians feared that artwork showing people might lead to idol worship. Gradually, however, the Church came to accept the use of icons, or depictions of holy people. In the West, other types of art eventually replaced the icon, but the Eastern Orthodox Church still uses icons today. Icons are painted according to strict rules. This approach also shaped other religious art in Russia. To construct a church or create a religious artifact was a sacred task, performed according to rigid guidelines. Art was not a form of self- expression. Icon ▲ This 12th-century Russian icon RESEARCH LINKS For more on religious art, go to classzone.com is of the Archangel Gabriel. According to the Bible, Gabriel was the messenger who told the Virgin Mary that she would give birth to Jesus. In Orthodox churches, artists must follow certain rules when making icons. For example, icons are always two-dimensional because they are seen as windows through which worshipers can view heaven. ▲ Cross and Illuminated Manuscript ▲ The cross above was carved from ivory and shows the Archangel Michael. In Christian belief, Michael is the leader of the heavenly hosts and a spiritual warrior who helped the Israelites. That is why he is often shown with a sword, as he is here. The illuminated manuscript was made during the 15th century and shows a scribe writing out the Gospel. Illuminated manuscripts were handwritten books decorated with gold or silver, vivid colors, elaborate designs, and small pictures. The word illumination originally referred to the gold or silver decoration, which made the pages seem as if light were shining on them. 312 Chapter 11 ▲ Reliquary This elaborately decorated silver chest is a Russian cathedral reliquary. Reliquaries are containers that hold sacred relics, such as the bones of a saint. Most reliquaries are portable, allowing them to be carried in processions. Wooden Churches ▲ Located in Varzuga, Russia, the Church of the Dormition was built in 1674. It is just one of many churches in Russia made out of wood. These churches were often built on a hilltop overlooking forests and villages. Roughly cut logs were used for the walls. However, the designs of the ceilings were complex and included the use of onion domes, as shown here. In the Russian Orthodox Church, onion domes represent heaven. 1. Making Inferences Why do you think the archangels Michael and Gabriel were popular subjects for Russian religious art? See Skillbuilder Handbook, Page R10. 2. Comparing and Contrasting What types of religious art are common in our society today? How are they similar to or different from the art on these two pages? 313  3 Turkish Empires Rise in Anatolia MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES CULTURAL INTERACTION In the 20th century, the collapse Seljuks Malik Shah Turkish people converted to of the Turkish empire left ethnic vizier Islam and founded new empires and religious hostilities that still that would renew Muslim affect the world. civilization. SETTING THE STAGE To the east of Constantinople and south of Russia, the mighty Muslim empire of the Abbasids had ruled since the eighth century. (See Chapter 10.) By the mid-tenth century, however, their control of the region would end as a powerful group known as the Turks emerged. TAKING NOTES The Rise of the Turks Clarifying Use a chart to show important As powerful as the Abbasids were, they constantly struggled to maintain control events and features of of their empire. Spain broke away in 756, six years after the Abbasids came to the various occupations power. After setting up their capital in Baghdad, the of Baghdad. Black Sea Abbasids lost their grip on other parts of the empire as well: Morocco in 788 and Tunisia in 800. In 809, they lost Constantinople Occupiers Events some regions of Persia. Then, in 868, the Abbasids lost Ae A N AT O L I A ge Abbasids an control of Egypt. Se Persians a Finally, in 945, Persian armies moved into Baghdad and Seljuks Mediterranean Sea put an end to the power of the caliph, an Islamic religious Mongols or political leader. Even though the caliph continued as the religious leader of Islam, he gave up all political power to the new Persian ruler. It wasn’t long, however, before the Persians themselves fell to a powerful group in the region. The Conquering Seljuks As early as 1300 B.C., Chinese records mention a people called the Tu-Kiu living west of their borders. The Tu-Kiu may well have been the Turks. For centuries, these nomads rode their horses over the vast plains. They herded goats and sheep, lived in tents, and used two-humped camels to carry their goods. The Islamic world first met them as raiders and traders along their northeastern frontiers. The Abbasids took note of the Turks for their military skills. They began buying Turkish children to raise as slaves, train as soldiers, and employ as body- guards. The Abbasids came to prize the slaves for their skill and loyalty. On the subject, one author wrote, “One obedient slave is better than 300 sons; for the latter desire their father’s death, the former [desires] long life for his master.” Over time, Turkish military slaves, or mamelukes, became a powerful force in the Abbasid Empire. In the tenth century, a growing number of Turks began converting to Islam and slowly migrating into the weakened Abbasid Empire. One of the first of these 314 Chapter 11  migrating Turkish groups was known as the Seljuks (SEHL JOOKS), after the family that led them. The Seljuks gradually grew in number and strength. In 1055, they attacked and captured Baghdad from the Persians. Nearly 20 years later, the Seljuk sultans marched on the Byzantine Empire. At the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, Turkish forces crushed the Byzantine defenders. Within ten years, the Seljuks occupied most of Anatolia, the eastern flank of Byzantium. This brought the Turks closer to the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, than the Arabs or Persians had ever come. This near conquest of the New Rome also inspired the name of the Seljuk sultanate of Rum Contrasting (from “Rome”). Rum survived in Anatolia after the rest of What advan- the Seljuk Empire had crumbled. tages would a The Turks Secure Persian Support Back in Baghdad and nomadic people like the Turks have its surrounding region, Seljuk rulers wisely courted the sup- in fighting settled port of their newly conquered Persian subjects. In fact, the people like the founder of the Seljuk Dynasty, Toghril Beg, chose the Persian Malik Shah Persians or city of Isfahan (IHS fuh HAHN) as the capital of his king- 1055–1092 Byzantines? dom. This favorable treatment made the Persians loyal sup- Malik Shah is thought to be the porters of the Seljuks, and the Turks often appointed them as greatest of the Seljuk sultans. Among government officials. The brilliant Nizam al-Mulk, for his achievements, he built the great mosque Masjid-i-Jame (shown example, was a Persian who served as the vizier, or prime above) in Isfahan. Malik also minister, of the most famous of Seljuk sultans, Malik Shah. patronized intellectuals and artists The Turks also showed a great admiration of Persian like Omar Khayyam (OH mahr learning. The nomadic Seljuks had arrived in Southwest ky YAHM), who is most famous today Asia basically illiterate. They were unfamiliar with the tra- for the Rubaiyat (ROO bee AHT). The Rubaiyat is a collection of poems ditions of Islam, which they had just adopted. As a result, describing the poet’s love of life’s they looked to their Persian subjects for both cultural and pleasures. Omar also created a more religious guidance. The Turks adopted Persian as the lan- accurate calendar for Malik. guage of culture and adopted features of the Persian way of Malik Shah was also capable of life that they so admired. Seljuk rulers were called shahs, great cruelty. When his brother from the Persian word for a king. They also promoted Takash revolted against him, Malik punished Takash by blinding him. Persian writers like the mystical Islamic poet Jalaludin Malik Shah died suddenly at the age Rumi, whose poetry is widely read today. Rumi often wrote of 37, possibly poisoned by his wife. of his desire to achieve a personal experience of God. PRIMARY SOURCE RESEARCH LINKS For more on Malik Burning with longing-fire, Shah, go to classzone.com wanting to sleep with my head on your doorsill, my living is composed only of this trying to be in your presence. JALALUDIN RUMI, quoted in Unseen Rain Seljuk shahs like the great Malik Shah took pride in supporting Persian artists and architects. Malik beautified the city of Isfahan, for example, by building many splendid mosques. The Turks’ political and cultural preference for the Persians caused the almost complete disappearance of the Arabic language from Persia. Arabic was kept alive mainly by religious scholars studying the Qur’an. As a result of their policies, the Seljuks won strong support from the Persians, who were proud of their long heritage and eager to pass it on. Like other conquer- ing peoples throughout history, the Seljuk Turks found that they had much to learn from those whom they had defeated. Byzantines, Russians, and Turks Interact 315 ▲ This drawing from an early 13th- Seljuks Confront Crusaders and Mongols century manuscript Malik Shah ruled as the last of the strong Seljuk leaders. After his unexpected illustrates the death in 1092, no capable shah appeared to replace him. So, the Seljuk Empire Turkish siege of quickly disintegrated into a loose collection of minor kingdoms. Just at that point, a city. the West launched a counterattack against the Turks and other Muslims for control of the Holy Land of the Middle East. This series of military campaigns was known as the Crusades. The Seljuks and the Crusaders Pope Urban II launched the First Crusade in 1095. He called on Christians to drive the Turks out of Anatolia and recover Jerusalem from Muslim rule. Armies from Western Europe soon poured through Constantinople and proceeded on to Palestine. In 1099, the Crusaders captured Jerusalem and massacred its Jewish and Muslim inhabitants. They established a Summarizing Latin Christian kingdom that lasted about a century. Why did the Eventually, a fragment of the former Seljuk Empire gathered enough strength to Crusades take fight back. Under their famous Kurdish captain Saladin, the Muslims recovered place? Jerusalem in 1187. Eventually, Saladin and his Western opponent King Richard I of England signed a truce. Their agreement gave Jerusalem to the Muslims but granted Western pilgrims access to Christian holy places. Subsequent popes called for further Crusades. But each new military expedition proved weaker than the last. By the 13th century, the Western powers seemed to pose little problem for the Turks. It was around this time, however, that a new threat emerged from the east—the mighty and brutal Mongols. Seljuks Face the Mongols As you have read previously, the Mongols were a group of nomadic clans along the Asian steppes. In the early 1200s, they grew into a unified force under the ruler Genghis Khan and swiftly conquered China. The Mongol armies eventually turned to the west and leveled any cities that dared to resist them. They slaughtered whole populations. In 1258, Genghis’s grandson Hulagu led his troops to the outskirts of Baghdad, which by this time was surrounded by a defensive wall. The account of what followed by Persian historian 316 Chapter 11  Wassaf speaks to the Mongols’ fierce and overwhelming fighting methods: PRIMARY SOURCE The arrows and bolts, the lances and spears, the stones from the slings and catapults of both sides shot swiftly up to heaven, like the messengers of the prayers of the just, then fell as swiftly, like the judgements of fate.... In this way, Baghdad was besieged and terrorized for fifty days. But since the city still held out the order was given for baked bricks lying outside the walls to be collected, and with them high towers were built in every direction, overlooking the streets and alleys of Baghdad. On top of these they set up the catapults. Now the city was filled with the thunder and lightning of striking stones and flaring naphtha Turkey pots. A dew of arrows rained from a cloud of bows and the Today, Turkey is a nation located population was trampled underfoot.... The cry went up, ‘Today between Europe and Asia just north we have no strength against Goliath and his army!’ of the Mediterranean Sea. About WASSAF, quoted in The Mongol Empire 80 percent of its residents are descendants of the Seljuks and When Hulagu finally took Baghdad, he burned down other Turkish groups. the caliph’s palace and had tens of thousands of people Turkey became a republic in 1923. killed. Mongol belief forbade the spilling of sacred blood. Many of today’s Turks, like their ancestors, practice Islam, as So Hulagu executed the last Abbasid caliph by having him evidenced by the nation’s flag wrapped in a carpet and trampled to death by horses. (shown above). It depicts the With untold brutality, Genghis Khan and his successors crescent and the five-pointed star, shaped the biggest land empire in history. (See Chapter 12 the symbols of the Islamic faith. for more about the Mongol Empire.) The warrior Mongols, however, knew little about administering their territory. As a result, their vast empire crumbled in just a few genera- INTERNET ACTIVITY Write about a tions. And out of the rubble of the Mongol Empire rose cultural practice in Turkey. Go to classzone.com for your research. another group of Turks—the Ottomans. They would build an empire that lasted into the 20th century. You will learn more about the Ottoman Empire in Chapter 18. SECTION 3 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. Seljuks vizier Malik Shah USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Which occupier proved to be 3. Why did the Seljuks need to 6. ANALYZING ISSUES In what ways would it be accurate to the worst for Baghdad? seek religious guidance from say that the Persians actually won over the Turks? the Persian peoples they had 7. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS Do you think it is Occupiers Events conquered? wise for rulers to place members of conquered peoples Abbasids 4. How did the death of Malik in positions of government? Why or why not? Persians Shah affect the Seljuk Empire? 8. MAKING INFERENCES Based on the observations by the Seljuks 5. What agreement did Saladin Persian historian Wassaf, why do you think the Mongols Mongols and England’s King Richard I were such successful conquerors? reach about Jerusalem? 9. WRITING ACTIVITY CULTURAL INTERACTION Write several paragraphs comparing the ways in which the different groups in this section interacted. CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A SUMMARY Identify a modern-day Arab poet. Then analyze one of his or her works and write a brief summary that expresses its main idea. Byzantines, Russians, and Turks Interact 317 Chapter 11 Assessment TERMS & NAMES Turkish Empires Rise in Anatolia Section 3 (pages 314–317) For each term or name below, briefly explain its connection 17. In what ways did the Turks show respect for their Persian to the Byzantine, Russian, and Turkish empires between 500 subjects? and 1500. 18. What group eventually conquered the empire established