Brief History of Drug Use 3052 PDF

Lecture 1 Why People Use Drugs Pleasure Cultural Medicinal Spiritual Other Drug Prohibition - Canadian History Existed for 100+ years 3 million + have been busted Criminal justice system approach (law enforcement) Championed by moral reformers who controlled the “oth...

Lecture 1 Why People Use Drugs Pleasure Cultural Medicinal Spiritual Other Drug Prohibition - Canadian History Existed for 100+ years 3 million + have been busted Criminal justice system approach (law enforcement) Championed by moral reformers who controlled the “others” and is rooted in colonialism Seen as a social problem (drugs are evil, users are criminals) Drug Prohibition Aims: to lower consumption, addiction rates, and trafficking Early targets: Chinese men, Indigenous people, racial, class, and gender prejudices based on colonization Negative stereotypes and representation has grown (eg. disdain for homeless in London) Law enforcement and media commentary reinforces such stereotypes List of criminalized drugs has grown and punishments are more severe Historical, social, cultural, psychological, biological, political, legal, and environmental contexts - you will never know the full story Discriminatory legal, social, and medicinal regulation Poor/marginalized are more likely to be criminalized Users: considered immoral, criminal, pathological, out of control Drug Prohibition - Has it Worked? Has not stopped use No but it has: worsened health and wellbeing, increased imprisonment, child apprehension, and human rights violations, undermines health services A “failed” multi billion dollar experiment, the issue is too complex and layered for one solution Drug Prohibition - Recently Change of perspective - more focus on harm reduction Surrendering to the fact that people will do what they want Who controls what policies get put in place? Those involved: moral reformers, activists, politicians, users, citizens, law enforcement, health providers, judges, lawyers Lecture 2 Plant Drugs and Colonization Plant-based drugs common pre 1800s (Indigenous specifically), little distinction between medical and non medical use Many modern meds derived from Indigenous meds Rise of pharmaceuticals in 1800s Trading companies and Catholic missions established in 1600s in New France Protestant missions more common following British Conquest 1759-1760 Trading posts, military forts, and settlements displaced Indigenous peoples “Christianization” of Indigenous peoples, Europeans felt superior Colonization driven by western imperialism (military force) Alcohol Beginning in the 1500’s Europeans brought alcohol, religion, laws, and disease Indigenous faced the consequences, with first drug prohibition directed at them Settlers sold/traded whisky for fur Colonization led to racialization of drug policy Protestant/upper class opposed consumption of alcohol Protestant Christian mission in England in 1700s to “clean up” alcohol consumers Devotees = foreign missions to convert non christians Staunch Temperance Advocates = people who valued religion, sobriety, and self control (often women) to be respectable Real problems: poverty, urbanization, industrial capitalism, colonization Western Christian religions, morals, and values pushed and suppressed liquor trade Gradual Civilization Act 1857 (indigenous could give up their status to be british citizens and have more rights) Gradual Enfranchisement Act 1869 (forced control over indigenous communities, chose who was in local indigenous government - band governance, no drinking) Indian Act 1876 (combines the 2 above, still exists) John A. Macdonald regulated life for “Indians”, with genocide sometimes imposed Canada envisioned as white and Christian by British colonists Prohibition/acts are a legal mechanism to control Indigenous peoples Some Indigenous nations supported prohibition because they thought they would get their land/resources back Wanted to prevent mixing of races Prohibition lasted for Indigenous peoples until 1955 Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum) Settlers brought opium, an essential medicine historically Important trade item in India, China, Europe, Middle East In 1700s and 1800s opiates were taken orally Staple of medicine chests in Europe, Canada, USA Unregulated, could get from pharmacy/order, and no distinction between legality  Laudanum used for women's problems In soothing syrups for babies Stomach problems, poverty, and poor housing = high infant mortality in Britain in 1800s Coca Plant (Erythroxylum) Grown for thousands of years, integral in South America Chewed, put in tea Mild stimulating effects Common in Western nations in late 1800s, post South America Colonization In patent meds, cough drops, wine, beverages such as Coca Cola Cannabis (Cannabis sativa) From central Asia, used medicinally in Western nations in mid 1800s Used for meds, spiritual, and recreational purposes, with doctors writing about benefits Provides fiber, paper, rope, oil, edible seeds Ingredient in patent meds/tonics Isolating Compounds from Plants 1803 morphine from opium Beginning of pharmaceutical industry, search for synthetic drugs, modern medicine 1898 heroin from morphine 1850s hypodermic syringe, meds into blood quicker Plant based drugs not considered a social problem in 1700s and 1800s Opium Wars (1839-1842 and 1856-1860) Idea of using plant based drugs shifted from 1800s to 1900s Opium imported to China from India by the British since 8th century, post tobacco import Smoking opium began in 1500s and increased in China in 1700s and 1800s Became public health issue, eventually became illegal in China British did not stop importing, war broke out China took control of trade from India Hong Kong given to British as a result for 100 years Lecture 3 Narcotic Control Vancouver began with drug prohibition and had resistance Indian Act 1876: drug prohibition (sale and possession) 1858: Chinese men arrived in Canada to join Gold Rush Later more arrived for national railway, honest, hardworking, paid less, dangerous jobs and rougher conditions West Coast 1849: became a british colony  1871: became a part of Canada, intended to be white Canada 1886: Vancouver founded Government gifted Coast Salish peoples land to build railway Indigenous, Japanese, and Chinese denied voting rights, discouraged from living in Vancouver due to land owning laws, living, and head tax Despite this they made Vancouver their home 1879: Canadian Illustrated News Narcotic Use European settlers and Chinese used opium Late 1800’s to early 1900’s opium was imported to Canada and raw opium to Chinese factories in BC 1906 government brought Chinese opium trade to a halt Racism with Narcotics Economic slump surged racism, people believed Chinese/Japanese took their jobs USA had fears about asian military might Anti Asian propaganda, US Exclusion League, Canadian Asiatic Exclusion League supported in Vancouver in 1907 1907: march for a white Canada, businesses damaged, people feared for safety, media played a role Japan consul contacted Prime Minister, and King met with Chinese Anti Opium League after letter was sent by Peter Hing and was in support Prime Minister pressured to stop opium use and trade Prohibition 1908: Opium act (factories closed, prison, 50-100 fine) Aimed at Chinese men who smoked opium 1908: Patent Medicine act (had to label ingredients) Montreal Children’s Aid Society has anti cocaine campaign Have political, religious, police, montreal women's club as allies Opium and Drug Act 1911 More drugs added to list and police powers increase Chinese residents profiled more Lecture 4 1920: Canada became member of Opium Advisory Committee of the League of Nations, Opium and Narcotic Drug Act established 1921: Mackenzie King becomes Prime Minister, “father of drug prohibition” Opium and Narcotic Drug Branch Royal Northwest Mounted Police and Dominion Police formed RCMP Royal Canadian Mounted Police role was enforcing new drug laws alongside local Canada 1920’s/1930’s No government funded drug treatment or drug substitution treatments British doctors could prescribe narcotics to opioid addicts Narcotic Division maintained control of drug/addiction policy, opposed to drug maintenance programs, advocated for abstinence and prison Doctors not allowed to prescribe maintenance drugs for addicts 1925: maximum penalty was 5 yrs 1929: charged with criminal offense for not providing info to Narcotic Branch USA 1920’s/1930’s Harrison Act 1914: provided narcotic treatment initially Narcotic farms: federally funded to provide drug treatment Emily Murphy Moral reformer who campaigned for women’s rights, temperance, drug prohibition Wrote articles about new drug menace, drug trafficking, and racialized others threatening white nation 1922: The Black Candle book Warned about dangers of smoking opium, drug users are liars, criminals, sexually immoral, abandon their family and home White women close to racialized men would threaten the christian nation Anti Drug Campaigns Citizen and newspaper led Wanted to educate Canadians on “Chinese Menace” Solutions: abolish chinatowns, deport chinese, harsher drug laws Integral to Anti Asian campaigns The Writing on the Wall Novel By Glynn-Ward in 1921, set in Vancouver Features anti-asian prejudice, opium dens, “soul killing” fumes of opium Wealthy white couple threatened by Chinese men Chinese Exclusion Act 1923, banned Chinese from entering Canada Harsher drug laws, intensified police force on chinese Deportation of Chinese men convicted of drug offense Opium and Narcotic Drug Act 1922 1923: Marijuana added 1925: vehicles confiscated if drugs found inside 1929: whipping added as a penalty Mandatory fines, higher penalties, labour, imprisonment The Depression 1. Narcotic Division Continued power Drugs and users are threat to the nation, even tho few used criminalized drugs 2. Economic Crisis: 1929 Unemployment Governments struggled to deal and viewed labour organizers, workers, communists, and socialists as threats Many protested for more government action, the “On-to-Ottawa Trek” Anti marijuana films produced which directed attention away from that (ex. Assassin of Youth, Marihuana: The Weed with Roots in Hell, Reefer Madness) 3. Harry Anslinger Commissioner of US Federal Bureau of Narcotics Praised Canada for criminalizing Marijuana, said it caused sex attacks, crime sprees, murder, etc White middle class teens are vulnerable and addicted, dealers are evil Young women lose morality and degrade if they use 1937: Federal Marijuana Tax Act in US, article “Marijuana Assassin of the Youth” Under 25 Marijuana possession arrests per year up to 1960, then rise in 1967 Met with Prime Minister and Colonel to coordinate efforts in 1938 Addict Files Narcotic Division expanded surveillance of pharmacies, pharmacists, addicts, traffickers, and professional addicts aka doctors/nurses Files from 1928-1970’s to regulate activities/convict Those who used criminalized drugs experienced prison, whipping, deportation (particularly lower class) Colonel Sharman active contributor to these files Pharmacists had to record every prescription/purchase of newly criminalized drugs Drug Scheduling 1938, contained 11 groups of criminalized drugs Categorized based on abuse potential Ex. opium, cocaine, cannabis, eucaine, morphine, heroin, codeine Lecture 5 Protocol on Control of Narcotic Drugs (Paris, 1948) Division of Narcotics and RCMP Marijuana not really a problem with no convictions in 1945, yet it is still added to the list Illegal addiction = “criminal addicts”, small population of these people, will still engage in criminal activity even if sober, therefore no cure, subject to police surveillance/prison Legal addiction = “a health issue” Psychiatrists became involved and labeled criminal addicts as criminal and pathological 1930 -1946 75% of drug convictions were for possession 73% of drug convictions resulted in prison time New Brunswick and Manitoba had higher conviction/arrest rates which are disproportionate to their smaller populations Women made up 5-7% convictions, increasing from 1941-1946 ->during wwII Chinese men made up 18% of convictions which is a huge decrease due to past imprisonment, deportation, fear Charges hugely affect children + family Before World War II Narcotics were: Opium Morphine Codeine Heroin Following World War II More drugs criminalized because the “drug problem” was addressed more Went from smoking opium to injection and consumption of heroin and morphine Law enforcement -> class biased (profiling) to poor and working class white people Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver were major targets Psychiatry became involved in the treatment of addiction (considered addiction a psychiatric disorder and criminal activity) RCMP Constable: H.F. Price (1946) Used the term “The Criminal Addict” 52 interviews with arrested drug offenders Findings: White women: all “prostitutes” and sexually promiscuous ○ “...sullen foul-tongued girl, mentally dull and utterly lacking in any moral sense.” ○ More of an expectation for women to be mothers/wives/caretakers/proper Claimed that the chinese men interviewed were from the “coolie class” (lower wage/working)  Has similar views about women, racialized men, and class from the 1920s and 1930s “Popular theory” that his addict participants recommend ○ Government-operated clinics should be estimated…receive narcotics legally…no need to engage in crime Recommended education to contain the association of criminal addicts with moral citizens ○ Lectures, newspaper articles, and films Robert Halliday Director of the Narcotic Addiction Foundation in Vancouver in 1958 Said lack of publicly funded drug treatment in Canada must be related to the social concept of the addict as a criminal first, and a sick person second 1948 “Drug Addict” Documentary about illegal drugs, trafficking, and addiction Directed by Robert Anderson Canadian National Film Board made it Made for: Division of Narcotic Control and Department of National Health and Welfare, education Won award in 1949 1956 “Monkey on the Back” Directed by Julian Biggs Canadian National Film Board made it Documentary about heroin addiction Heroin Division of Narcotic Control attempted to ban legal heroin, doctors argued it had value Can be used for therapeutic drug maintenance, but can also be addicting 1954: World Health Organization recommends ban on heroin importation 1955: licenses permitting heroin importation no longer issued Heroin stock ran out so doctors could not prescribe it for drug maintenance Ernest E. Winch (work from 1930-1957) Member of B.C.’s provincial legislature Contested federal drug prohibitionist policy Said Canada should adopt the “British system” -> doctor’s right to prescribe heroin and morphine to people addicted to narcotics The small group of imprisoned illegal narcotics users in B.C. would benefit from narcotics maintenance treatment Wrote to justice health ministers around the world about their drug problems Collected data from B.C. prisons and found an increase in incarceration and recidivism for drug offenses from 1944-1953 1955 - Senate Proceedings of the Special Committee on the Traffic in Narcotic Drugs in Vancouver Winch argued the Ranta Report ○ …for establishment of “legalized medical clinics for the treatment of certified chronic drug addicts for the purpose of administering the minimum amount which will enable them to carry on their means of livelihood and refrain from having to resort to underworld sources of drug supply” ○ … that publicly funded treatment and legal narcotic clinics should be made available because many people addicted to drugs “have no criminal record prior to their addiction…imprisonment does not prevent, nor does it cure, drug addiction.” ○ …harmful effects of canadian drug laws were visited (enforced) primarily on poor and working-class people who were profiled by police Other witnesses communicated similar messages… ○ Doctors and pharmacists had the resources to pay for private sanitariums (treatment), had easier access to drugs, and had the resources to pay others to obtain drugs for them, if needed Ranta Report 1952 - Community Chest and Council of Greater Vancouver’s Special Committee on Narcotics Dr. Lawrence Ranta and group of professionals in Vancouver called for a shift in drug policy from criminal to health Studied “Drug Addiction in Canada: The Problem and its Solution” Ranta Recommended: publicly funded narcotic clinics, incarceration of addicts would not solve addiction or trafficking, addicts should be treated as a medical problem with psychiatric implication Dr. George Stevenson viewed addicts as criminals Stevenson Recommended: abstinence-based treatment facilities Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) Legal in 1950s Research began in use of this drug for treatment of alcoholism and schizophrenia Saskatchewan Mental Hospital in Weyburn Sire of research made possible through activism of CCF and Tommy Douglas (premier who took an interest in mental health and healthcare) First province to publicly fund healthcare 1947: Hospital and Insurance Act 1961: Saskatchewan Medical Care Insurance Act Tommy Douglas enticed doctors/researchers to take part 1950: Dr. Abram Hoffer 1951: Dr Osmund Humphries - Experimented with LSD as treatment for alcoholism and schizophrenia - Thesis: mental illness is biological and social in origin  - LSD therapy met both needs, triggering perceptions of the self and raising consciousness 1953: Sydney Katz visited Weyburn and took LSD ○ Wrote an article in Maclean’s Magazine “My 12 hours as a madman” Earlier in 1953, Dr Humphries travelled to California to attend a conference -> he met author Aldous Huxley who heard about the experiences with LSD at Weyburn… he volunteers to be a part of the study… and then introduces Dr. Humphries to mescaline 1954: Huxley writes a famous book about his experiences with LSD: The Doors of Perception Around this time, Dr. Humphries coins the term psychedelic Some conservatives romanticized the 1950 as idyllic However, far-left and communist organizations were hounded by the Canadian Government 1950s- the indigenous peoples strongly asserted their sovereignty Around this time, Huxley and beat poets explored and wrote about drugs and altered states of consciousness Meanwhile, the Native American Church's (NAC) sacred peyote ceremonies were under attack by the Canadian Government Peyote Ceremonies 1940s: peyote ceremonies taking place in Canada 1950s: peyote drug scare - moral reformers said peyote was dangerous, cult like, intoxicating, addicting, radical - NAC wanted to protect this religious practice - Dr. Osborn, Hoffer, Blewett and Weckowixz attended ceremony