Consequences of Alcohol and Drugs in Colonization

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Questions and Answers

What was a significant consequence of European colonization for Indigenous peoples regarding alcohol?

First drug prohibition targeted at them (correct)

Freedom to choose their own drinking laws

Trading alcohol for agricultural products

Increased access to medicinal alcohol

Which act forced control over Indigenous communities and allowed the selection of local indigenous government members?

Indian Act 1876

Diplomatic Relations Act 1882

Gradual Enfranchisement Act 1869 (correct)

Gradual Civilization Act 1857

Which group primarily opposed alcohol consumption among settlers during the colonization period?

Protestant/upper class advocates (correct)

Indigenous tribal leaders

European fur traders

Catholic missionaries

What was a common view of Europeans toward Indigenous peoples during the colonization process?

They considered them inferior and sought to 'Christianize' them Signup and view all the answers

What catalyzed the rise of pharmaceuticals in the 1800s?

Exploitation of Indigenous knowledge for profit Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant consequence of the narcotic division's actions regarding drug users?

Imprisonment and deportation of drug users Signup and view all the answers

Which film was produced to direct attention away from economic issues during the 1929 crisis?

Marihuana: The Weed with Roots in Hell Signup and view all the answers

What did Harry Anslinger claim about the effects of marijuana?

It led to sex attacks and crime sprees Signup and view all the answers

What was established by the Federal Marijuana Tax Act in 1937?

Strict penalties for possession of marijuana Signup and view all the answers

What was a primary purpose of the narcotic division's surveillance activities?

To regulate and convict those involved in drug trafficking Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of drug convictions resulted in prison time between 1930 and 1946?

73% Signup and view all the answers

Which group had the highest proportion of drug convictions between 1930 and 1946?

Chinese men Signup and view all the answers

What was considered a legal addiction as discussed in the content?

A health issue Signup and view all the answers

What type of profiling was mentioned concerning law enforcement practices post-World War II?

Class biased profiling towards the poor and working class Signup and view all the answers

Which narcotic drugs were predominantly used before World War II?

Opium, morphine, codeine, and heroin Signup and view all the answers

What term did Price use to describe drug offenders in his 1946 study?

The Criminal Addict Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary finding regarding white women in Price's interviews?

They were all identified as prostitutes. Signup and view all the answers

What did Robert Halliday attribute the lack of publicly funded drug treatment to?

A focus on criminalization over health. Signup and view all the answers

Which documentary, directed by Robert Anderson, was produced in 1948?

Drug Addict Signup and view all the answers

What recommendation did the World Health Organization make regarding heroin in 1954?

Ban its importation. Signup and view all the answers

What system did Ernest E. Winch advocate for regarding drug users in B.C.?

The British prescription-based maintenance system. Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of legal heroin availability for doctors by 1955?

Heroin stock shortages for prescriptions. Signup and view all the answers

What educational methods did Price recommend to change views on criminal addicts?

Lectures, newspaper articles, and films. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary aim of the Opium Act established in 1908?

To penalize Chinese men who smoked opium Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the perception of drug use among Indigenous peoples in Canada during the prohibition era?

Prohibition was supported to reclaim land and resources Signup and view all the answers

What significant event occurred as a result of the Opium Wars between Britain and China?

Hong Kong was ceded to Britain Signup and view all the answers

How did the arrival of Chinese men in Canada relate to drug use?

They brought opium smoking techniques to Canada Signup and view all the answers

What was a key feature of the Narcotic Control policies in Canada during the 1920s?

Increased police powers to enforce drug laws Signup and view all the answers

Which drug legislation included marijuana in Canada?

Opium and Narcotic Drug Act 1922 Signup and view all the answers

Emily Murphy was primarily known for her campaigns against which issue?

Moral reform Signup and view all the answers

The Indian Act of 1876 primarily implemented drug prohibition against which group?

Indigenous peoples Signup and view all the answers

What motivated the anti-drug campaigns in Montreal during the early 1900s?

Fear of Chinese men leading drug trafficking Signup and view all the answers

What was a notable feature of drug regulations in Vancouver during the early 1900s?

Targeted enforcement against Indigenous peoples Signup and view all the answers

Which drug was recognized in Canada as having medicinal use in the mid-1800s?

Cannabis Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the economic context that fueled racism associated with narcotics?

Economic slump leading to job competition Signup and view all the answers

What role did the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) hold in drug regulation?

Enforcing new drug laws alongside local authorities Signup and view all the answers

In the context of drug regulation, how were the 1920s and 1930s marked in Canada?

Strict enforcement without treatment options Signup and view all the answers

How did society respond to the perceived 'menace' of opium during the early 20th century?

With campaigns advocating for harsher penalties for drug offenses Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Plant Drugs and Colonization

Plant-based drugs were common before the 1800s, particularly among Indigenous peoples.
Many modern medications are derived from Indigenous medicine.
Pharmaceuticals gained prominence in the 1800s.
Trading companies and Catholic missions were established in New France in the 1600s.
Protestant missions became more common after the British Conquest in 1759-1760.
Trading posts, military forts, and settlements displaced Indigenous peoples.
European colonists viewed themselves as superior and sought to "Christianize" Indigenous populations.
Colonization was driven by Western imperialism and military force.

Alcohol

European settlers brought alcohol, religion, laws, and disease to Indigenous communities starting in the 1500s.
The first drug prohibition was directed at Indigenous populations.
Settlers traded whisky for fur, leading to colonization-based racialization of drug policy.
Protestant and upper classes opposed alcohol consumption.
Temperance movements emerged in 1700s England, aiming to curb alcohol consumption and convert non-Christians.
Temperance advocates often included women seeking respectability.
Social problems prevalent during this time included poverty, urbanization, industrial capitalism, and colonization.
Western Christian religions, morals, and values influenced and suppressed the liquor trade.
Gradual Civilization Act (1857): Indigenous people could renounce their status to become British citizens with more rights.
Gradual Enfranchisement Act (1869): This led to forced control over Indigenous communities and gave the government, not Indigenous people, the power to choose leaders.
Indian Act (1876): A combination of the two acts above, this law is still in effect today.
John A. Macdonald regulated the lives of "Indians," sometimes imposing genocide.
British colonists envisioned Canada as a white and Christian nation.
Prohibition and various acts were legal tools used to control Indigenous peoples.
Some Indigenous nations supported prohibition as they hoped it would help them reclaim land and resources or prevent racial mixing.
Prohibition for Indigenous peoples lasted until 1955.

Opium Poppy

Opium, historically an essential medicine, was introduced by settlers.
It was a major trade item in India, China, Europe, and the Middle East.
Opium was taken orally in the 1700s and 1800s.
It was a staple of medicine chests in Europe, Canada, and the U.S.A.
Laudanum was used to treat women's health issues.
Soothing syrups containing opium were given to babies.
High infant mortality rates in Britain in the 1800s were attributed to stomach problems, poverty, and poor housing conditions.

Coca Plant

The coca plant has been cultivated for thousands of years in South America.
It was traditionally chewed or used to make tea.
Coca offers mild stimulating effects.
It became common in Western nations in the late 1800s following South American colonization.
Coca was found in patent medicines, cough drops, wine, and beverages like Coca Cola.

Cannabis

Cannabis originated in Central Asia and was used medicinally in Western nations from the mid-1800s.
It was used for medical, spiritual, and recreational purposes with doctors documenting its benefits.
Cannabis was integral for fiber, paper, rope, oil, and edible seeds.
It was an ingredient in patent medicines and tonics.

Isolating Compounds from Plants

1803: Morphine was isolated from opium, marking the beginning of the pharmaceutical industry, and the search for synthetic drugs and modern medicine.
1898: Heroin was synthesized from morphine.
1850s: The hypodermic syringe was introduced, allowing faster delivery of medication into the bloodstream.
Plant-based drugs were not considered a social problem in the 1700s and 1800s.

Opium Wars

The perception of plant-based drugs shifted from the 1800s to the 1900s.
Britain imported opium from India to China since the 8th century, following tobacco imports.
Opium smoking began in the 1500s and became more prevalent in China in the 1700s and 1800s.
It became a public health issue, eventually leading to its illegalization in China.
Britain continued importing opium, triggering the Opium Wars.
China eventually gained control of the trade from India.
Hong Kong was ceded to Britain for 100 years as a result of the war.

Narcotic Control

Vancouver experienced drug prohibition and resistance.
The Indian Act (1876): This law prohibited the sale and possession of drugs.
1858: Chinese men arrived in Canada to join the Gold Rush.
Later, more arrived for the national railway, facing lower wages, dangerous jobs, and harsh conditions.

West Coast

1849: British Columbia became a British colony.
1871: British Columbia joined Canada, intended to be a white nation.
1886: Vancouver was founded.
The government gave Coast Salish peoples land for railroad construction but denied them the right to vote and discouraged them from living in Vancouver due to restrictive land ownership laws.
Despite these restrictions, many built lives in Vancouver.
1879: The Canadian Illustrated News documented these sociopolitical issues.

Narcotic Use

European settlers and Chinese used opium.
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, opium was imported to Canada, with raw opium being used in Chinese factories in British Columbia.
1906: The government halted the Chinese opium trade.

Racism with Narcotics

The economic slump fueled racism as people believed Chinese and Japanese were taking their jobs.
The USA had fears about Asian military power.
Anti-Asian propaganda spread, with the US Exclusion League and the Canadian Asiatic Exclusion League gaining support in Vancouver in 1907.
1907: A "white Canada" march occurred, damaging businesses and causing widespread fear, fueled by media narratives.
The Japanese consul contacted the Prime Minister, and the King met with the Chinese Anti Opium League following a letter from Peter Hing, who advocated for peace.
The Prime Minister was pressured to stop opium use and trade.

Prohibition

1908: The Opium Act was passed, closing factories and imposing fines and prison sentences on those found in possession of opium.
This Act specifically targeted Chinese men who smoked opium.
1908: The Patent Medicine Act required ingredient labeling.

Montreal

The Children's Aid Society launched an anti-cocaine campaign with support from political figures, religious institutions, police, and the Montreal Women's Club.

Opium and Drug Act (1911)

This Act expanded the list of prohibited drugs and increased police powers.
It further led to the profiling and targeting of Chinese residents.

1920s and 1930s

1920: Canada joined the Opium Advisory Committee of the League of Nations, and the Opium and Narcotic Drug Act was implemented.
1921: Mackenzie King became Prime Minister, often called the "father of drug prohibition."
Opium and Narcotic Drug Branch: This branch was established, and the Royal Northwest Mounted Police and Dominion Police combined to form the RCMP.
The RCMP was tasked with enforcing new drug laws alongside local authorities.
There were no government-funded drug treatment or substitution programs; however, British doctors could prescribe narcotics to opioid addicts.
The Narcotic Division maintained control over drug and addiction policy, opposing drug maintenance programs and promoting abstinence and imprisonment.
Doctors were prohibited from prescribing maintenance drugs to addicts.
1925: The maximum penalty for drug-related offenses was set at five years.
1929: Failure to provide information to the Narcotic Branch was deemed a criminal offense.

USA (1920s-1930s)

Harrison Act (1914): Initially, this act provided narcotic treatment.
Narcotic Farms: These federally funded facilities offered drug treatment.

Emily Murphy

A moral reformer who campaigned for women's rights, temperance, and drug prohibition.
She wrote articles about the "drug menace," drug trafficking, and racialized people posing a threat to the white nation.
1922: Published "The Black Candle," a book warning about the dangers of opium smoking and portraying drug users as liars, criminals, sexually immoral, and abandoning their families.
She warned that white women near racialized men threatened the Christian nation.

Anti-Drug Campaigns

Citizen and newspaper-led campaigns aimed to educate Canadians about the "Chinese Menace."
Solutions advocated for included abolishing Chinatowns, deporting Chinese people, and implementing harsher drug laws.
These campaigns were integral to anti-Asian sentiments.

"The Writing on the Wall" Novel

This 1921 novel by Glynn-Ward was set in Vancouver.
It featured anti-Asian prejudice, opium dens, and "soul-killing" opium fumes.
It depicted a wealthy white couple threatened by Chinese men.

Chinese Exclusion Act

1923: This act prohibited Chinese people from entering Canada.
Harsher drug laws were enacted and police enforcement increased on Chinese communities.
Chinese men convicted of drug-related offenses were deported.

Opium and Narcotic Drug Act (1922)

1923: Marijuana was added to the list of prohibited drugs.
1925: Vehicle confiscation became a consequence of discovering drugs within them.
1929: Whipping was introduced as a punishment.
Mandatory fines, increased penalties, forced labor, and imprisonment became part of the law.

The Depression (1929)

Narcotic Division: It maintained its power, continuing to view drugs and users as threats to the nation, even though relatively few people used criminalized substances.
Economic Crisis (1929): High unemployment resulted.
Governments struggled to respond and viewed labor organizers, workers, communists, and socialists as threats.
Many protested for more government action, notably the "On-to-Ottawa Trek."
Anti-marijuana films were produced to divert attention from other issues (ex. "Assassin of Youth," "Marihuana: The Weed with Roots in Hell," "Reefer Madness").
Harry Anslinger: The US Federal Bureau of Narcotics commissioner praised Canada for criminalizing marijuana, claiming it induced sex attacks, crime sprees, murder, and other violent actions.
He claimed that white middle-class teenagers were vulnerable and addicted and that dealers were evil.
He argued that young women lost their morality and degraded with marijuana use.
1937: The US Federal Marijuana Tax Act was passed, and an article titled "Marijuana Assassin of the Youth" was published.
Under 25 marijuana possession arrests occurred per year until 1960, then rose in 1967.
Anslinger met with the Prime Minister and Colonel Sharman in 1938 to coordinate anti-drug efforts.

Addict Files

The Narcotic Division expanded its surveillance of pharmacies, pharmacists, addicts, traffickers, and professionals (doctors, nurses) suspected of drug use.
Files from 1928 to the 1970s were kept to regulate activities and convict individuals.
Those who used criminalized drugs faced prison, whipping, and deportation, particularly those from lower-income backgrounds.
Colonel Sharman was an active contributor to these files.
Pharmacists were required to record all prescriptions and purchases of newly criminalized drugs.

Drug Scheduling

1938: This system contained 11 groups of criminalized drugs categorized based on their potential for abuse.
Drugs included opium, cocaine, cannabis, eucaine, morphine, heroin, and codeine.

Protocol on Control of Narcotic Drugs (Paris, 1948)

Division of Narcotics and RCMP (1940s)

Marijuana was not considered a serious problem, with no convictions in 1945, but it was still added to the list of illegal drugs.
Illegal addiction was labeled as "criminal addiction."
This group was considered a small population, but it was believed to have been inherently criminal, even when sober, and therefore incurable.
These individuals were subject to police surveillance and imprisonment.
Legal addiction was labeled as a "health issue."
Psychiatrists: They became involved in labeling criminal addicts as both criminal and pathological. (See "The Criminal Addict" below)

1930s-1946 (General Trends)

75% of convictions were for drug possession.
73% of convictions resulted in prison sentences.
New Brunswick and Manitoba had significantly higher conviction and arrest rates, disproportionate to their smaller populations.
Women accounted for 5-7% of convictions, increasing from 1941 to 1946, especially during World War II.
Chinese men made up only 18% of convictions, a substantial decrease due to past imprisonment, deportation, and fear.
These charges significantly impacted children and families.

Before World War II

The main criminalized narcotics were opium, morphine, codeine, and heroin.

Following World War II

More drugs were criminalized as the "drug problem" gained more attention.
The shift from opium smoking to intravenous injection and consumption of heroin and morphine became prevalent.
Law enforcement practiced class bias (profiling) aimed at poor and working-class white people.
Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver were major targets.
Psychiatry became increasingly involved in treating addiction, viewing it as both a psychiatric disorder and criminal activity.

RCMP Constable: H.F. Price (1946)

He wrote "The Criminal Addict," a research paper based on 52 interviews with arrested drug offenders.
His findings classified all white women as "prostitutes" and "sexually promiscuous."
He described them as having "sullen foul-tongued girl, mentally dull and utterly lacking in any moral sense."
He expected women to be mothers, wives, caregivers, and uphold societal standards.
He referred to Chinese men as "coolies" (a derogatory term for low-wage workers).
His views on women, racialized men, and class mirrored the prevailing sentiments from the 1920s and 1930s.
He proposed that "his addict participants recommend" government-operated clinics to provide legal access to narcotics, eliminating the need for crime.
Price advocated for education to segregate and isolate criminal addicts.
He proposed lectures, newspaper articles, and films to address the association of criminal addicts with "moral citizens."

Robert Halliday

He was the director of the Narcotic Addiction Foundation in Vancouver in 1958.
He connected Canada's lack of public funding for drug treatment to the societal perception of addicts: criminal first, then sick.

Films (1948)

"Drug Addict": A documentary about illegal drugs, trafficking, and addiction.
It was directed by Robert Anderson.
It was produced by the Canadian National Film Board as an educational tool.
Intended for the Division of Narcotic Control and Department of National Health and Welfare.
It won an award in 1949.

Films (1956)

"Monkey on the Back": A documentary about heroin addiction.
It was directed by Julian Biggs.
It was produced by the Canadian National Film Board.

Heroin (1950s)

The Division of Narcotic Control attempted to ban legal heroin, while doctors argued for its therapeutic value.
Heroin could be used for drug maintenance treatment, but it also had addictive potential.
1954: The World Health Organization recommended banning heroin imports.
1955: Licenses for heroin importation were revoked.
The heroin supply ran out, preventing doctors from prescribing it for maintenance treatment.

Ernest E. Winch (1930s-1957)

He was a member of British Columbia's provincial legislature.
He challenged the federal drug prohibitionist policy.
He advocated for adopting the "British system," which permitted doctors to prescribe heroin and morphine to those addicted to narcotics.
He believed that the small population of incarcerated illegal narcotics users in British Columbia would benefit from narcotics maintenance treatment.
Winch wrote to justice and health ministers globally about their drug issues.
He collected data from British Columbia.

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Explore the impact of European colonization on Indigenous peoples, particularly regarding alcohol and narcotics. This quiz addresses the effects of policies and societal views during the colonization period, as well as the early rise of pharmaceuticals and government regulations on drug use.