Brief Answers - Vnucko PDF

**Brief Answers:** 1. **Linguistics**: Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure, including the study of morphology, syntax, phonetics, and semantics. 2. **Applied linguistics**: It involves applying linguistic theory to real-world problems, such as language t...

**Brief Answers:** 1. **Linguistics**: Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure, including the study of morphology, syntax, phonetics, and semantics. 2. **Applied linguistics**: It involves applying linguistic theory to real-world problems, such as language teaching (e.g., developing ESL curricula). 3. **Convention**: A socially agreed-upon norm or practice in language use, such as grammatical rules. 4. **Speech community**: A group of people who share a common language or dialect and norms for its use. 5. **Linguistic sign**: A unit of meaning in language, such as a word or morpheme. 6. **Dual nature of linguistic signs**: According to Saussure, a linguistic sign consists of the \"signifier\" (sound/image) and \"signified\" (concept). 7. **Unique human capacity**: Humans uniquely create systems of signs to convey abstract and complex meanings, unlike other species. 8. **Language family**: A group of languages descended from a common ancestral language. 9. **Language families of English and Slovak**: English belongs to the Germanic branch, and Slovak belongs to the Slavic branch of the Indo-European family; both share Indo-European roots. 10. **BASIC ENGLISH**: \"British American Scientific International Commercial\" is a simplified English vocabulary for global communication. 11. **Proponent of BASIC ENGLISH**: Charles Kay Ogden. 12. **Features of BASIC ENGLISH**: Simplified grammar, restricted vocabulary (e.g., 850 words), and universal applicability (e.g., use of \"get\" for various actions). 13. **Compound noun/Derivative**: *Compound noun*: \"toothpaste\"; *Derivative*: \"happiness\" (root + suffix). 14. **Compound formation**: - Hyphenated: \"mother-in-law\" - Solid: \"toothpaste\" - Open: \"high school\" 15. **Idiom**: A phrase whose meaning isn\'t literal (e.g., \"kick the bucket\"). Special because they convey fixed cultural meanings. 16. **Idiomatic pairs**: Fixed pairs like \"bread and butter\" (binomials), \"give and take\" (antonyms), \"by and large\" (prepositions). 17. **Types of speech (Bloomfield)**: - Commands - Questions - Statements - Exclamations - Performative utterances. 18. **Provincial standard vs local dialect**: Provincial standards have standardized grammar and lexicon (e.g., Scottish Standard English), while local dialects have distinct phonetic, lexical, and grammatical features (e.g., Broad Scots). 19. **Differences between spoken and written English**: - Spoken is transient, written is permanent. - Spoken uses intonation, written uses punctuation. - Spoken is less formal. 20. **IPA**: International Phonetic Alphabet, used for transcription. 21. **Transcription**: - tough: /tʌf/ - hiccough: /ˈhɪkʌp/ - beard: /bɪəd/ (British). 22. **Branches of phonetics**: Articulatory, acoustic, and auditory phonetics. 23. **Speech sounds in English**: 44 sounds. 24. **Digraph**: Two letters representing one sound (e.g., \"ch\" in \"chop\", \"sh\" in \"ship\"). 25. **Eight properties of language**: Arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission, reflexivity, discreteness, and prevarication. 26. **Properties (e.g.)**: *Arbitrariness*: No inherent link between word and meaning; *Duality*: Language has sound and meaning levels. 27. **Morphemes in \"unreliability\"**: Four (un- \[prefix\], rely \[root\], -able \[suffix\], -ity \[suffix\]). 28. **Utterance**: A spoken word, statement, or vocal expression. 29. **Illocutionary force**: The speaker\'s intended function of an utterance (e.g., request, command). 30. **Stress for uncertainty**: \"I *think* he knows what I mean.\" 31. **Polite request word**: \"Please.\" 32. **Pre-request**: \"Could I ask you a favor?\" 33. **Formality-informality continuum**: Language varies from very formal to casual depending on context. 34. **Interphases of formality**: Formal (academic), semi-formal (workplace), informal (friends). 35. **Informal version**: \"Thanks a lot for your offer and help.\" 36. **Formal version**: \"I appreciate your kind words; they brightened my day.\" 37. **Factors of formality**: Lexical choice, sentence length, use of contractions. 38. **Accent vs dialect**: Accent affects pronunciation, while dialect involves grammar, vocabulary, and accent. 39. **Basis for variety**: Geography, social factors, historical developments. 40. **Isogloss**: A geographical boundary marking language variation. 41. **Bilingual countries**: Canada, Belgium. 42. **Individual bilingualism**: A person's ability to speak two languages fluently. 43. **Varieties of language**: Regional, social, stylistic, temporal, standard. 44. **The switch**: Alternating between languages in conversation (code-switching). 45. **Interference**: Influence of one language on another (e.g., grammar errors in L2). 46. **Facilitation**: Positive transfer between languages (e.g., cognates like \"information\"). 47. **Jargon**: Specialized language for a specific group (e.g., medical terms). 48. **Idiolect**: An individual's unique speech pattern. Influenced by geography, social group, and education. 49. **Protolanguage in Europe**: Proto-Indo-European. 50. **IDE division**: Centum (k-sound preserved) vs Satem (k-sound palatalized). 51. **Centum languages**: Latin, Greek, Germanic; **Satem languages**: Sanskrit, Slavic, Baltic. 52. **Synchronic vs diachronic**: Synchronic studies language at a specific time; diachronic studies historical changes. 53. **IDE features**: Inflectional morphology, complex verb conjugations. 54. **Non-IDE families**: Uralic, Afro-Asiatic, Sino-Tibetan. 55. **Cognate**: Words with a common origin (e.g., *mother* in English and *mutter* in German). 56. **False cognates**: *Actual* (English) vs *actual* (Spanish for \"current\"). 57. **Influences on English**: Celtic, Latin, Norse, French, Germanic. 58. **Language influences**: - Celtic: *Thames*, *avon*. - Latin: *wine*, *wall*. - Norse: *sky*, *knife*. - French: *court*, *judge*. - Germanic: *house*, *bread*. 59. **Heptarchy**: Seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. 60. **Language influence timeline**: Celtic (before 5th c.), Latin (5th c.), Norse (9th-11th c.), French (11th-15th c.). 61. **Old English era**: 5th to 11th centuries. 62. **Importance of OE**: Foundation of English vocabulary and grammar. 63. **Features of OE**: Complex inflections, rich vocabulary. 64. **Chaucer's work**: *The Canterbury Tales*. 65. **OE to ME change**: Loss of inflectional endings. 66. **Early Modern English figures**: Shakespeare, Milton. 67. **Great Vowel Shift**: Long vowels shifted upwards in pronunciation. 68. **Neologisms**: *Selfie*, *binge-watch*. 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