BIOS251 Exam 1 Review - Sep 24, 2024 PDF

A&P Exam 1 Review By: Dr. Jameelah Nelson Edited & Presented By: Dr. Jenna Bridgewater 9/13/2024 What is anatomy vs Physiology Anatomy: The study of body structure Physiology: The study of body parts and how they interact with one another Structure and function...

A&P Exam 1 Review By: Dr. Jameelah Nelson Edited & Presented By: Dr. Jenna Bridgewater 9/13/2024 What is anatomy vs Physiology Anatomy: The study of body structure Physiology: The study of body parts and how they interact with one another Structure and function complement one another Terminology & Anatomical Position  Directional Terms Anatomical Position Person stands erect, facing forward, the arms at the sides, the palms of the hands are turned forward, and the feet are flat on the floor.  1. Axial- represents core of body, Appendicular – includes upper and Terminology includes all structures except (arms and legs) lower appendages (arms & legs) Axillary (armpit) Cephalic (head) to know Cervical (neck) Thoracic (chest) Brachial (upper arm) Antecubital (front of the elbow) Antebrachial (forearm) Abdominal (belly) Carpal (wrist) Pelvic (hip) Palmar (palm) Pubic (groin) Pollex (thumb) Back of the neck (nuchal) Digital or phalangeal (fingers) Femoral (thigh) Patellar (anterior surface of the knee) Crural (leg) Pedal (foot) Metatarsal/tarsal (ankle) Terminology to know Ventral - Toward the front* or belly Proximal - Closer to the point of attachment or Dorsal - Toward the back or spine origin Distal - Farther from the point of attachment or Anterior - Toward the ventral side origin Posterior -Toward the dorsal side Ipsilateral - On the same side of the body (right or Cephalic -Toward the head or superior end left) Rostral - Toward the forehead or nose Contralateral - On opposite sides of the body (right Caudal - Toward the tail or inferior end and left) Superior - Above Superficial - Closer to the body surface Inferior - Below Deep - Farther from the body surface Medial - Toward the median plane Lateral - Away from the median plane Practice: Define the following directional terminology: Distal – Anterior – Cephalic – Superior – Dorsal – Medial – Contralateral – Deep – Practice using anatomical terms: The nose is _______________________ and _________________________ to the eyes. The heart is ____________________ to the sternum. The elbow is ___________________________ to the wrist. The head is _____________________________ to the abdomen. Body Cavities, Planes, Sections  Body Cavities Dorsal Cavities Cranial Spinal Cavity Ventral Cavities Thoracic Cavity Pericardial Cavity Pleural Cavities Abdominopelvic Cavity Abdominal Cavity Pelvic Cavity Lining Body Cavities Each of the cavities has a lining… “Parietal” ….if the lining is in contact with the body wall. “Visceral”…if the lining is in contact with organs. The “Cavity” is found between the two linings  Quadrants and Regions 4 Abdominopelvic Quadrants 9 Abdominopelvic Regions  Body Planes Invisible flat surfaces (dividing lines) that separate organs, structures, or the human body into sections "Plane" refers to an axis, and 3 planes are needed to describe any 3D object A section is a single view of one plane Sagittal Planes Sagittal – divides the body into right and left sides Midsagittal– divides into equal right & left sides Parasagittal – unequal right & left sides Organization & Systems Atoms -> Molecules -> Organelles -> Cells -> Tissues -> Organs -> Organ Systems -> Organism Systems of the The eleven systems of the human body are: Integumentary Body Skeletal Muscular Nervous Endocrine Cardiovascular lymphatic/immune Respiratory Digestive Urinary Reproductive  Integumentary System Components: Skin Accessory Structures (hair, nails, glands) Functions: Protects the body as a barrier & 1st line of defense Regulates body temperature Synthesizes Vitamin D Excretes Waste  Skeletal System Components: Bones Joints Ligaments Functions: Structural support Protects internal organs Provides movement Major role in blood formation Stores calcium  Muscular System Components: Skeletal, Smooth, & Cardiac Muscles Tendons Functions: Provides Movement Maintains Posture Produces Heat  Lymphatic System Components: Thymus Spleen Lymph Nodes Lymphatic Nodules Lymphatic Vessels Functions: Balances fluids Transports dietary lipids Immune function  Respiratory System Components: Nasal Cavity Pharynx Trachea Bronchi Lungs Bronchioles Alveoli Functions: Gas exchange Olfaction Sound production  Urinary System Components: Kidneys Ureters Urinary Bladder Urethra Functions: Eliminates waste Regulates blood volume, pressure, composition, and pH  Nervous System Components: Brain Spinal Cord Nerves Functions: Controls all other body systems Allows for communication between systems Processes sensory information  Endocrine System Components: Hypothalamus Pituitary Gland Pineal Gland Thyroid Gland Parathyroid Glands Thymus Adrenal Glands Pancreas Testes & Ovaries Functions: Regulates metabolism, growth, and reproduction through the production and use of hormones  Cardiovascular System Components: Blood Heart Blood Vessels Arteries Veins Capillaries Functions: Transports gases, nutrients, hormones, and waste Distributes heat  Digestive System Components: Gastrointestinal (alimentary) Canal Oral Cavity Esophagus Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine Rectum & Anus Digestive Accessory Organs Salivary Glands Liver Gallbladder Pancreas Functions: Breaks down food to absorbable nutrients Rids the body of waste  Male Reproductive System Components: Testis Epididymis Vas Deferens Scrotum Penis Urethra Accessory Glands Seminal Vesicles Prostate Bulbourethral Glands Functions: Produces sex hormones Produces sex cells Maintains male sex characteristics  Female Reproductive System Components: Ovaries Oviducts (uterine tubes, fallopian tubes) Uterus Vagina Breasts (mammary glands) Functions: Produces sex hormones Produces sex cells Maintains female sex characteristics Nuture developing fetus Homeostasis HOMEOSTASIS (Balance) = maintenance of a stable internal environment Homeostasis is maintained by the body’s regulatory processes. All organ systems work to accomplish homeostasis. How is Homeostasis Maintained Three important components of homeostasis: Sensor (Receptor) – monitors internal environment and responds to changes (stimuli) Control Center – determines the “set point” that internal functions should maintain Target (Effector)- responds to stimuli THIS IS CALLED A FEEDBACK LOOP  Negative Feedback Loop Most common; reduces, shuts off, or counterbalances the original stimulus Positive Feedback Loop Enhances, exaggerates, or amplifies the original stimulus Week 2: Chemistry Atoms, Chemical Bonds & Inorganic Compounds  Atomic number: Number of protons in an atom Mass number: Total number of protons + neutrons in an atom Atomic weight: average mass of an atom of that element Isotopes - same number of protons and electrons, but they have a different number of neutrons  Molecules Atoms can react with either atoms of the same element or atoms of a different element to create larger structures called molecules. These atoms are held together by bonds.  Ions Ions- atoms or molecules with an electrical charge Imbalance of protons and electrons Protons > Electrons = Cation (+) Electrons > Protons = Anion (-) To Determine the Electrical Charge: Charge of electrons is –1 Charge of protons is +1 Electrons + Protons = Total Charge Between metals and nonmetals; Forms by transfer of electrons between cations (+) and anions (-) Forms by sharing electrons between nonmetals Metals vs Nonmetals Helps to estimate the types of bonds in the structure Metals seek to lose electrons Nonmetals seek to gain electrons  Mixtures Mixture Solution Solution: a homogenous mixture of two or more Mixture – a combination of more than one compound, substances; components cannot be distinguished visually physically mixed together.2 types of mixtures: from one another. 1. Homogenous- do not separate over time and cannot be Solute: the substance that makes up the smaller part of separated by most membranes, also known as solutions. the solution. 2. Heterogenous – not uniform in their composition Solvent: the substance that makes up the larger part of the solution. Water and Electrolytes Water Electrolytes “Universal Solvent” - Able to dissolve many Give off/form ions when dissolved in water substances Our bodies depend on these to function Can form hydrogen bonds Examples: Potassium ions (K+), Sodium ions Cohesion = water molecules are attracted to (Na+), Bicarbonate (HCO3-2) other water molecules Adhesion = water molecules are able to stick to nearby molecules High heat capacity & can participate in many chemical reactions Acids & Bases  Acids & Bases Acid Acid: a species that donates an H+ ion Base Acidosis – the term given to blood that has a pH Base: a species that accepts an H+ ion lower than 7.35. This can be caused by an Alkalosis – the term given to blood that has a pH accumulation of CO2. greater than 7.45. This can be caused by an Acidic solutions have pH < 7 increased loss of CO2. Basic solutions have pH > 7 A buffer solution resists large pH changes when an acid or base is added to the solution. The buffer then helps prevent significant changes in pH. Organic Chemistry The study of carbon-based structures Carbon & Functional Groups Carbon contains 4 unpaired valence electrons & is expected to make 4 bonds Carbon accepts functional groups- sets of atoms that are covalently bonded to the carbon framework Determines properties like solubility, reactivity, and consistency Functional groups are present in biomolecules (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, & nucleic acids) Alcohols, carboxylic acids, amines, esters Building biomolecules = anabolism Breaking down biomolecules = catabolism  Monomers & Polymers Monomers = small molecular building blocks, can exist alone or link to others of same type to form polymers Ex: monosaccharides, amino acids, nucleotides Polymers = large molecule made from many monomers Forming a polymer = polymerization Ex: proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) Dehydration Synthesis vs Hydrolysis  4 Macromolecules Protein POLYMER MONOMER Carbohydrate Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Lipid (Polysaccharides) (simple sugars) Nucleic Acids Lipids (e.g. fats) Glycerol and Fatty Acids Know function, monomer Protein Amino Acids Nucleic Acids Nucleotides Practice Question Which monosaccharides form each disaccharide? Sucrose = _______ + _______ Maltose = _______ + _______ Lactose = _______ + _______  Lipids Functions: energy storage, fat protection for internal organs, fat insulation, maintenance of body temp, digestion of fat -soluble vitamins Fatty Acid Single or double carbon-to-carbon bonds long hydrocarbon carbon chain attached to a carboxylic acid group at one end. Triglycerides three fatty acids bound to a glycerol molecule Steroids Have distinctive 4-ring structure Hormones 4-ring structure like steroids Waxes fatty acid linked to an alcohol other than glycerol. COOC (ester) functional group Phospholipid Bilayer Hydrophilic (“water- loving”)/Lipophobic (“lipid- hating”) component = phosphate head Hydrophobic (“water- hating”)/Lipophilic (“lipid- loving”) component = 2 long fatty acid chain tails  Derived Lipids Saturated Fatty Acids Carbon chain + full complement of hydrogen atoms All carbons linked by single bonds Solid at room temperature Straight linear appearance Unsaturated Fatty Acids One or more carbon-carbon double bonds SCFA: total carbon atoms = 1-6 MCFA: total carbon atoms = 7-12 LCFA: total carbon atoms = 13-21 Soft/liquid at room temperature  Nucleic Acids Monomer = nucleotide Phosphate Pentose sugar (deoxyribose or ribose) Nitrogenous base (purine or pyrimidine)  DNA vs RNA DNA RNA Function: carries out genetic code. key for expressing genetic differences Forms double helix A-U, G-C base pairs Double-stranded A-T, G-C base pairs (Apple Tree; Car Garage) Practice Question What is the structure of DNA vs RNA? (sugar/phosphate/nitrogen bases) DNA: Phosphate Sugar = ____________ Nitrogen Bases = _______ _______ _______ _______ RNA: Phosphate Sugar = ____________ Nitrogen Bases = _______ _______ _______ _______  Protein Functions: Digest alcohol, build biomolecules, fight infections, and many other important functions. Complete proteins – have all essential amino acids present. Typically found in animal-based proteins Incomplete proteins – are missing at least one essential amino acid. Typically found in plant-based proteins (with the exception of soy-based proteins).  Amino Acids Building blocks of proteins Essential Amino Acids Essential vs non-essential Valine Leucine Gluconeogenic vs ketogenic Isoleucine Threonine 20 different amino acids to Methionine make peptides & proteins in Lysine Tryptophan our bodies Phenylalanine  Proteins in Human Body Enzymes An enzyme is a protein catalyst in a living cell Increases the rate of the reaction without changing the reaction Enzymes are: Highly specific Extremely efficient Subject to cellular controls Hemoglobin Binds oxygen molecules inside red blood cells & delivers to rest of body