Biology Boot Camp Notes PDF

Biology Boot Camp Notes created on January 27, 2025 at 10:04 AM by Minutes AI Boot Camp Overview (00:00 - 09:56) Meeting Schedule Today and tomorrow from 10am to 1:30pm Break every hour Purpose of Boot Camp Review basic biology concepts Bring all student...

Biology Boot Camp Notes created on January 27, 2025 at 10:04 AM by Minutes AI Boot Camp Overview (00:00 - 09:56) Meeting Schedule Today and tomorrow from 10am to 1:30pm Break every hour Purpose of Boot Camp Review basic biology concepts Bring all students to the same level Student Backgrounds Varied starting points Some have taken biology recently, others not for a long time Types of Students Graduates with non-science degrees Students with AP biology or 101 experience Key Concepts Covered Cell Structure Importance of understanding cell appearance and organelles Cell Transport Fundamental concept applicable to all living beings Cell Division Focus on mitosis and meiosis These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Emphasis on understanding vocabulary related to cell division Teaching Approach Vocabulary Foundation Basic genetics terms before discussing mitosis and meiosis Hands-On Learning Use of beads for practical understanding Quizzes Available for practice, not for credit Three attempts allowed Encouragement for Questions Importance of asking questions No silly questions; clarity is crucial Resources for Help Instructors available during office hours or via email Organisms and Cells (09:56 - 19:54) All organisms are made up of cells. Organisms can be unicellular or multicellular. The smallest living unit is the cell. Anything smaller than a cell is not considered living. Vocabulary and Study Tips Keep a vocab list for unfamiliar terms. Write down the meaning of each term. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Important terms include: Stoma and stroma have different meanings. Organelles are structures found inside cells. Cell Structure Animal cells have a plasma membrane. The plasma membrane protects the cell and is flexible. Plant cells have a cellulose cell wall. The cellulose cell wall provides a rigid boundary. Organelles Organelles are structures inside the cell. Examples include the nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes, and ribosomes. Life functions occur at the cellular level. Functions include respiration, excretion, reproduction, and metabolism. Engaged Learning Process (19:56 - 29:51) Involve yourself in the learning process. Read, ask questions, and write them down. Questions may appear in quizzes or exams. Basic concepts are assumed knowledge. Example: "Nobody's going to ask you what is an organelle." Overview of Organelles Familiarity with organelles is essential. Example: Mitochondria conducts cellular respiration and makes ATP. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  First organelle discussed: Plasma membrane. Also called the cell membrane. Plasma Membrane Described by the fluid mosaic model. "Fluid" indicates it's pliable, not rigid. "Mosaic" refers to its composition of different molecules. Composed of phospholipids and proteins. Phospholipids are similar to triglycerides but have only two fatty acids. Phospholipids Structure of phospholipids. Composed of glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate. Importance of understanding triglycerides. "A lipid is nothing but fat." Dietary fats are called triglycerides due to their structure. Organic Compounds Definition and structure. Organic compounds have a carbon backbone. Bonds in organic compounds. Single bonds create straight chains; double bonds cause bends. Saturated and Unsaturated Fats (29:51 - 39:45) Saturated fats have fatty acids with only single bonds. Example: Butter is a saturated fat because it has a glycerol attached to three fatty These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Saturated fats are solid at room temperature due to closely packed molecules. Unsaturated fats contain one or more double bonds. Monounsaturated fats have one double bond; example: Olive oil. Polyunsaturated fats have multiple double bonds; examples: Safflower oil, Phospholipids Phospholipids consist of a glycerol attached to two fatty acid chains and a phosphate They are different from triglycerides, which have three fatty acid chains. The fatty acid chains in phospholipids are typically unsaturated, contributing to Plasma Membrane Structure The plasma membrane is composed of a bilayer of phospholipids. There is an outer layer and an inner layer of phospholipids. The phosphate heads of the inner layer are in the cytoplasm, while the outer layer's The fatty acid tails are sandwiched in between, creating a fluid core. Plasma Membrane (39:45 - 49:42) The plasma membrane is fluid in nature and called a mosaic. It contains proteins scattered among phospholipids. It is not homogeneous; it consists of multiple types of molecules. The plasma membrane is primarily made of phospholipids with fatty acid tails. Most plasma membranes are fluid, but exceptions exist, such as in cold bacteria. Cell Structure The plasma membrane protects the cell from the environment. Without the plasma membrane, the cell cannot survive. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  The cytoskeleton gives the cell its shape. It consists of threads and fibers running through the cytoplasm. Proteins in the Plasma Membrane Some proteins anchor cytoskeletal fibers. Some proteins serve as signaling proteins. They receive chemical signals from the environment to instruct cell activities. Some proteins act as transport proteins. They facilitate the entry and exit of substances in and out of the cell. Some proteins function as enzymes. Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions. Enzymes and Their Functions (49:44 - 59:42) Enzymes run chemical reactions in the body. If an enzyme is absent, the reaction does not work. All enzymes end in "ase". Example: Lactase breaks down lactose. Lactose and Its Breakdown Lactose is a sugar found in milk. It breaks down into glucose and galactose. Lactase is necessary to digest lactose. Without lactase, lactose remains in the intestine, causing inflammation and Sugar Types Lactose is a disaccharide. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Composed of glucose and galactose (monosaccharides). Monosaccharides are the only sugars the body can absorb. Polymers and Monomers Polysaccharides are formed from multiple monosaccharides. Example: Cellulose is a polysaccharide. Proteins are polymers made of amino acids (monomers). The body breaks down proteins into amino acids for absorption. Enzymes and Cell Membranes Enzymes are found freely in the body and on the phospholipid bilayer. They break down substances into simpler monomers. Types of proteins on the plasma membrane: Addition proteins help cells stick together. Recognition proteins identify cell types for immune response. White Blood Cells and Autoimmune Diseases (59 42 - White blood cells (WBC) recognize foreign cells through recognition proteins. Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system fails to recognize its own cells Cytoskeleton The cytoskeleton consists of threads and fibers that run through the cytoplasm. Provides shape and structure to the cell. Forms a framework for organelles. Cilia and Flagella These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai) :  Cilia are short and numerous, while flagella are long and whip-like. Cilia help in cell movement through rhythmic contractions. Flagella usually appear as one or two per cell. Cell Division and Spindle Fibers Spindle fibers are cytoskeletal fibers important for cell division. If spindle fibers do not function, the cell cannot divide. Certain chemotherapy drugs target spindle fibers to prevent cell division. Ribosomes Ribosomes are small granules involved in protein synthesis. Can be free or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. Essential for manufacturing proteins. Centrioles Centrioles act as anchors for spindle fibers during cell division. Located in the cytoplasm, not the cell wall. Lysosomes Lysosomes contain enzymes that break down molecules. Play a role in neutralizing and destroying bacteria within white blood cells. Lysosomes (1:09:42 - 1:19:40) If the lysosome ruptures, the cell could perish. Lysosomes contain enzymes that break down macromolecules. Enzymes are inactive at the near neutral pH of the cell. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Enzymes are pH specific. They speed up chemical reactions and break substances down. Importance of practice: Create sample questions to test understanding. Spend time on material to improve knowledge. Organelles Overview of organelles studied: Plasma membrane Cytoskeleton Ribosomes Centrioles Lysosomes Flagella and cilia Nucleus: Covered by a double membrane (nuclear envelope). Each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer. Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus surrounded by membranes. "Eukaryotic" means true nucleus. Prokaryotic cells have a naked nucleus. "Prokaryotic" means primitive nucleus. Examples: Eukaryotic: plant cells, human cells. Prokaryotic: bacteria. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai) Nuclear Envelope The nuclear envelope consists of two membranes. Nuclear pores allow materials to enter and exit the nucleus. Inside the nucleus is a fluid called nucleoplasm. Nucleolus and Nucleus (1:19:43 - 1:29:43) The nucleolus is a dense globular body in the nucleoplasm. The nucleus is the organelle; the nucleolus is not the nucleus. Important to be specific: "nucleus" and "nucleolus" should not be used interchangeably. DNA Structure DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is a molecule found in the nucleoplasm. It is an acid, hence the term "nucleic acid." DNA contains deoxyribose sugar, which is ribose with an oxygen removed. Chromatin and Chromosomes When the cell is not dividing, DNA is long, thin, and thread-like, collectively called During cell division, DNA condenses to form chromosomes. One chromosome is one condensed DNA molecule. Human DNA and Chromosome Count Humans have 46 DNA molecules in each cell. This equates to 46 chromosomes, as one DNA molecule equals one chromosome. Chromosome number is species-specific; humans are Homo sapiens due to having 46 Molecules and Genes (1:29:43 - 1:39:40) These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Molecules are defined (e.g., water - H2O, carbon dioxide, DNA). Parts of DNA responsible for characteristics are called genes. Example characteristics: eye color, hair type, blood clotting. Genes are responsible for gene expression. Gene expression determines characteristics. Zygote Formation Genes are inherited from parents. Sperm unites with egg to form a zygote. Zygote is a single cell. Common misconception: zygote is two cells. Zygote contains 46 DNA molecules (23 from sperm, 23 from egg). Endomembrane System The endomembrane system is a network of organelles. Responsible for modification, storage, and transport of cellular products. Cellular products can be for internal use or extracellular use. Products are modified and then either stored or transported to the plasma Organelles in the Endomembrane System Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) has two types: Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) has ribosomes attached. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) lacks ribosomes. Golgi apparatus and vacuoles are also part of the system. Vacuoles are membrane-bound storage sacs for various substances. Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis (1:39:43 - 1:49:39) These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Ribosomes synthesize protein. The protein drops into the lumen of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). As it travels through the RER, the protein gets modified. Modification process of proteins: Primary protein: amino acids linked in a straight chain. Secondary protein: coiling due to hydrogen bonds. Tertiary protein: further convoluted structure from R group interactions. Vesicles and Their Functions Vesicles bud off from the RER and carry proteins. Vesicles bud off from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) and carry lipids. Vesicles travel to the Golgi apparatus for further modification. Golgi Apparatus The Golgi looks like a stack of pancakes. Vesicles carrying lipids and proteins fuse with the lowermost sac. Substances are released into the lumen of the Golgi for further modification. The topmost sac of the Golgi bulges out and forms new vesicles. These vesicles are ready for use after modification. Vesicle Destinations Vesicles that bud off from the Golgi have three potential fates: Stay in the cytoplasm for later use. Fuse with the plasma membrane to release contents outside. Repair damaged plasma membrane by delivering lipids and proteins. Organelles and Their Functions (1:49:39 - 1:59:35) These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Organelles can either stay in the cytoplasm or fuse with the plasma membrane to expel Chloroplasts are not found in animals, only in green plants. Chloroplasts and the nucleus have double membranes. Outer membrane and inner membrane. Other organelles (e.g., Golgi, ribosomes, lysosomes) have one membrane. Chloroplast Structure The fluid inside the chloroplast is called stroma. Stroma is a viscous fluid. Thylakoid sacs are folded within the stroma. Stacks of thylakoid sacs are called grana (granum singular). Pigments, including chlorophyll, are found in the thylakoid sacs. Chlorophyll is the chief pigment molecule. ATP and Photosynthesis ATP synthase is an enzyme that synthesizes ATP in the thylakoid sacs. ATP is crucial for cellular function; its production stops at death. Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants synthesize food. Raw materials needed: carbon dioxide, water, minerals, and sunlight. Mitochondria Mitochondria also have two membranes (inner and outer). The space between the two membranes is called the intermembrane space. Mitochondria Structure (1:59:36 - 2:09:34) Inner membrane is folded, creating folds called cristae. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  The matrix is the inner compartment of the mitochondria. The outer compartment is referred to as the intermembrane space. ATP Synthesis Mitochondria are responsible for synthesizing ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP is a form of energy. Importance of ATP for daily energy levels. Lack of ATP can lead to fatigue. Study Tips Importance of rest and sleep for effective studying. Students often struggle with retention when sleep-deprived. Recommendation to organize time using a calendar. Helps manage responsibilities and study effectively. Class Interaction Students encouraged to discuss new learnings with peers. Game format introduced for engagement. Points awarded for answering and asking questions. Example questions discussed, such as the definition of a zygote and where cellulose is Organelles with Double Membranes (2:09:34 - 2:19:29) Nucleus Chloroplast Mitochondria Importance of Cell Structures These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Understand the structure and function of the plasma membrane. What it looks like and what it is made of. Its role in cell transport and protection. Importance of the nucleus and cytoskeletal fibers. The endomembrane system's significance for cell function. Cell Transport Cells require substances like oxygen, water, and ions to function. These substances enter the cell from outside. Mitochondria are responsible for ATP production. They need oxygen to make ATP. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts are present in plants. Plasma membrane functions in transport. It brings in substances and expels waste. If transport stops, it may result in cell death. Selective Permeability Plasma membrane is selectively permeable. Allows certain substances to flow in and out. Examples of passive transport: Oxygen and water entering the cell. Carbon dioxide leaving the cell. Active transport requires energy. Example: Hydrogen ions entering the cell. Types of Transport (2:19:30 - 2:29:28) These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Two types of transport: Passive transport: cell does not expend energy; substances flow in and out on Active transport: cell uses energy to move substances in or out. Mechanism of Passive Transport Substances that flow in and out on their own: Oxygen, water, and carbon dioxide move based on concentration gradients. Concentration gradient: Substances move from high concentration to low concentration. Example: Oxygen enters cell due to higher concentration outside than inside. Active Transport Active transport occurs when substances move against their concentration gradient. Example of hydrogen ions: Low concentration outside the cell and high concentration inside; requires energy Diffusion and Osmosis Diffusion: Movement of substances down their concentration gradient without energy. Example: Oxygen diffuses into the cell, carbon dioxide diffuses out. Osmosis: Special term for the passive transport of water through a selectively permeable Diffusion and Transport (2:29:30 - 2:39:29) Oxygen and water diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer. Glucose moves from high to low concentration but cannot diffuse through the bilayer. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Glucose requires a transport protein for facilitated diffusion. Facilitated diffusion is a type of passive transport; no ATP is required. Solutions and Concentration A solution consists of a solute and a solvent. Example: Sugar is the solute, and water is the solvent. Types of solutions based on solute concentration: Hypertonic: higher concentration of solute. Hypotonic: lower concentration of solute. Isotonic: equal concentration of solute. Comparing Solutions Solutions can only be labeled hyper, hypo, or iso when compared to another solution. Example comparisons: Solution A: 10 mg/L, Solution B: 100 mg/L (B is hyper). Solution B: 100 mg/L, Solution C: 1000 mg/L (C is hyper). Concentration is measured in parts per million (PPM) or milligrams per liter. Osmosis Osmosis is the passive movement of water from a hypotonic solution to a hypertonic Water moves from areas of low solute concentration to areas of high solute In a hypotonic solution, there is a lot of water; in a hypertonic solution, there is less Movement of Water and Sugar (2:39:29 - 2:49:28) Water moves, not sugar. Sugar cannot move through a selectively permeable membrane. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Osmosis defined. Transport of water from a hypotonic solution to a hypertonic solution. Hypertonic vs. Hypotonic. Hyper means more solute; hypo means less solute. Behavior of Animal Cells Animal cell in isotonic solution. Water entering equals water leaving; cell remains unchanged. Animal cell in hypotonic solution. Cell swells and bursts (lyses) due to water influx. Animal cell in hypertonic solution. Water leaves the cell, causing it to shrink and die. Behavior of Plant Cells Plant cell in hypotonic solution. Water enters, fills the central vacuole, and cell becomes turgid. Plant cell in hypertonic solution. Water leaves, cytoplasm shrinks, leading to plasmolysis. Plant cell in isotonic solution. Water entering equals water leaving; cell becomes flaccid, not turgid. Importance of Water for Plants Plants need water to maintain turgidity. Turgid cells help plants remain erect for sunlight access. Consequences of insufficient water. Plant cells shrink and may ultimately die if not watered. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai) Active Transport (2:49:28 - 2:59:27) Active transport involves the movement of substances against their gradient. The cell uses energy for this process. Transport occurs through a protein on the plasma membrane. The shape of the transport protein changes to facilitate movement. ATP is used to change the shape of the transport protein. This process is referred to as "pumping" the substance in. Bulk Transport Substances can move in bulk into or out of the cell. Movement into the cell is called endocytosis. Movement out of the cell is called exocytosis. Both endocytosis and exocytosis are passive transfers. No energy is required as substances move down their gradient. Bulk movement occurs rather than molecule by molecule. Types of Endocytosis Endocytosis can be categorized into three types. Phagocytosis: solid substances are engulfed. Pinocytosis: liquid substances are engulfed. Receptor-mediated endocytosis: movement is mediated by a receptor protein. Receptor-mediated endocytosis is important for specific substance uptake. Example: LDL cholesterol in the bloodstream. Bloodstream and Liver Function (2:59:27 - 3:04:17) Liver cells have LDL receptors. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  LDL binds to the LDL receptor for entry into liver cells. Liver helps maintain levels of bad cholesterol (LDL). LDL is pulled into liver cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis. Substance enters in bulk, not molecule by molecule. If few LDL receptors are present, LDL remains in the bloodstream. Consequences of High LDL Levels High LDL levels can clog arteries. Narrowed arteries require the heart to pump harder. Overworking the heart can lead to heart attacks. Some individuals have a genetic condition called hypercholesterolemia. This condition results in very high LDL levels regardless of lifestyle. Managing Cholesterol Levels Increasing HDL levels can lower LDL levels. HDL particles are larger and help clean arteries. Dietary recommendations include: Consume HDL-rich foods (e.g., walnuts). Avoid foods that increase LDL (e.g., lard, deep-fried items). Study Recommendations Have a study plan for the 170 lectures. Understand diffusion and passive transport for exams. Upcoming topics include energy, genetic sperms, and mitosis. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)