Bio 8th Grade Precomp Study Guide 2023 PDF

**Precomp Study Guide-8^th^ Grade 2023-2024** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Cell Theory | 1\. All living things have one | | | or more cells. | |...

**Precomp Study Guide-8^th^ Grade 2023-2024** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Cell Theory | 1\. All living things have one | | | or more cells. | | | | | | 2\. The cell is the basic unit | | | of all living things. | | | | | | 3\. All cells come from existing | | | cells. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Know the Following Scientists and | 1. **Robert Hooke**-First to | | their contributions to biology | discover cells. Gave them the | | | name "cells". | | | | | | 2. **Anton von | | | Leeuwenhoek**-Discovered many | | | single cell organisms. | | | Discovered that not only | | | plants have cells. | | | | | | 3. **Matthias | | | Schleiden**-Determined that | | | all plants are made of cells. | | | | | | 4. **Theodor | | | Schwann**-Determined that all | | | animals are made of cells. | | | | | | 5. **Rudolph | | | Virchow**-Determined that all | | | cells come from existing | | | cells. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Eukaryotic cell Structures and | +------------------------------+ | | Functions (Be able to locate in a | | **Cell Membrane**-Thin, | | | cell) | | flexible protective barrier | | | | | that covers the cell's | | | In the margin, write A if an | | surface and acts as a | | | animal cell has it and P if a | | barrier; determines what | | | plant cell has it. | | goes in and out of the cell. | | | | | **All cells have a cell | | | | | membrane** | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Nuclear Envelope**-Double | | | | | membrane surrounding the | | | | | nucleus. Defines and | | | | | protects the nucleus. *All | | | | | eukaryotes have a nuclear | | | | | envelope.* | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Centriole**-One of two | | | | | structures that make up a | | | | | centrosome. Participates in | | | | | cell division. *Only animal | | | | | cells have centrioles.* | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Centrosome**-Structure | | | | | located near the nucleus | | | | | that forms the spindle | | | | | during cell division. Made | | | | | up of two centrioles. *Only | | | | | animal cells have | | | | | centrosomes.* | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Endomembrane System**-All | | | | | organelles whose membranes | | | | | are physically continuous or | | | | | are transferred in segments | | | | | as vesicles. Includes the | | | | | nuclear envelope, | | | | | endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi | | | | | apparatus, lysosomes, | | | | | vesicles and vacuoles. *All | | | | | eukaryotes have an | | | | | endomembrane system*. | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Mitochondria**-Organelle | | | | | in all eukaryotes (including | | | | | plants!) that converts the | | | | | energy stored in glucose | | | | | into energy stored in ATP. | | | | | Does the process of cellular | | | | | respiration. *[All | | | | | eukaryotes have | | | | | mitochondria.]* | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Lysosome**-Small | | | | | organelles filled with | | | | | hydrolytic enzymes that | | | | | break down materials that | | | | | are not needed by the cell. | | | | | *[Only animal cells have | | | | | lysosomes.] | | | | | Plant cells do not have them | | | | | because they can store | | | | | wastes in the large central | | | | | vacuole.* | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Cytoplasm**-The fluid and | | | | | most of the organelles in a | | | | | cell EXCEPT the nucleus. | | | | | *All cells have cytoplasm*. | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Cytosol**-The fluid inside | | | | | the cell. *All cells have | | | | | cytosol*. | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Cytoskeleton**-Network of | | | | | fiber extending throughout | | | | | the cytoplasm that organizes | | | | | the structures and | | | | | activities of the cell. | | | | | | | | | | *All eukaryotic cells | | | | | (including plants) have | | | | | cytoskeleton.* | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Free Ribosome**-Make | | | | | proteins. *Free ribosomes | | | | | make proteins that will be | | | | | used within the cell.* They | | | | | float freely in the | | | | | cytoplasm. **All cells | | | | | (prokaryotes and eukaryotes) | | | | | have free ribosomes.** | | | | | Ribosomes are not membrane | | | | | covered/bound. Thus both | | | | | prokaryotes and eukaryotes | | | | | have ribosomes. | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Bound Ribosome**-Make | | | | | proteins. *Bound ribosomes | | | | | make proteins that will | | | | | either be in the cell | | | | | membrane or will be secreted | | | | | from the cell.* They are | | | | | attached to the rough | | | | | endoplasmic reticulum. *All | | | | | eukaryotes have bound | | | | | ribosomes.* | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Nucleolus**-Dense region | | | | | in the nucleus where | | | | | ribosome production begins. | | | | | *All eukaryotes have | | | | | nucleoli.* | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Golgi | | | | | Apparatus**-Warehouse for | | | | | receiving, sorting, | | | | | shipping, modifying and | | | | | storing proteins that will | | | | | be secreted from the cell. | | | | | *All eukaryotes have the | | | | | Golgi apparatus.* | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Smooth Endoplasmic | | | | | Reticulum**-Folded membranes | | | | | that do NOT have ribosomes | | | | | attached. Has various | | | | | functions depending on the | | | | | cell type. Functions | | | | | include: production of | | | | | lipids (including steroids | | | | | and some hormones), | | | | | metabolizing carbohydrates, | | | | | detoxifying drugs and | | | | | poisons and storing calcium | | | | | ions. *All eukaryotes have a | | | | | smooth endoplasmic | | | | | reticulum. Cells responsible | | | | | for removing toxins have lot | | | | | of smooth ER.* | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Rough Endoplasmic | | | | | Reticulum**-Folded membranes | | | | | where ribosomes attach if | | | | | the ribosome is making a | | | | | secreted protein. Newly made | | | | | proteins are inserted in the | | | | | RER where they fold and may | | | | | get carbohydrates attached. | | | | | The RER transports the | | | | | proteins as they are being | | | | | made. *All eukaryotes have a | | | | | rough endoplasmic | | | | | reticulum.* | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Nuclear Pore**-Small holes | | | | | in the nuclear envelope that | | | | | eukaryotes use to move some | | | | | materials in and out of the | | | | | nucleus. *All eukaryotes | | | | | have nuclear pores.* | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Vesicles**-Transport sacs | | | | | that move materials | | | | | throughout the cell. | | | | | Vesicles bud off of the | | | | | rough endoplasmic reticulum | | | | | to deliver material to the | | | | | Golgi apparatus and vesicles | | | | | also bud off of the Golgi | | | | | apparatus to deliver | | | | | material to the cell | | | | | membrane. Vesicles can also | | | | | move materials into the cell | | | | | during endocytosis. *All | | | | | eukaryotic cells have | | | | | vesicles.* | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **Vacuole**-Sac-like | | | | | structures that store | | | | | materials such as water, | | | | | salts, proteins and | | | | | carbohydrates. *All | | | | | eukaryotes have vacuoles. | | | | | [Animals have small, | | | | | temporary vacuoles. Plants | | | | | have large, permanent | | | | | central | | | | | vacuoles.]* | | | | +------------------------------+ | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Phospholipid Structure | Know which is the phosphate | | | group, the lipid, the head and | | | the tail. Know which part is | | | hydrophobic and which is | | | hydrophilic. Know how they orient | | | themselves in a lipid bilayer. | | | | | |  | +===================================+===================================+ | Types of Microscopes | Know the benefits and the | | | limitations of using the | | | following types of scopes: | | | | | | 1. **Compound light | | | microscope**-Benefits: Uses | | | light, cheap, easy to use, | | | can view living specimens. | | | Limitations: Magnification is | | | limited. We can't see very | | | small objects | | | | | | 2. **Scanning electron | | | microscope**-Benefits: Uses | | | electrons, allows us to see | | | the 3D surface of an object. | | | Limitations: Expensive, | | | requires a lot of training, | | | specimens are killed | | | | | | 3. **Transmission electron | | | microscope**-Benefits: Uses | | | electrons, allows us to see | | | the internal structures of a | | | cell. Limitations: Expensive, | | | requires a lot of training, | | | specimens are killed | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Types of cells | **Eukaryotic**-Cells with | | | membrane bound organelles. | | | (Eukaryotes may be unicellular or | | | multicellular.) | | | | | | **Prokaryotic**-Cells without | | | membrane bound organelles. (All | | | prokaryotes are unicellular.) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Plant cell structures and their | 1\. **Large central | | functions | vacuole**-Large, sac structure | | | in plant cells that stores | | | water and other inorganic | | | materials. Contributes to | | | turgor pressure (the pressure | | | that allows plant cells to be | | | rigid) | | | | | | 2\. **Chloroplasts**-Organelles | | | that performs photosynthesis, | | | converting sunlight, carbon | | | dioxide and water into glucose. | | | | | | 3\. **Cell wall**-Rigid | | | structure outside of a plant | | | cell membrane that give extra | | | support and protection to the | | | plant cell. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Prokaryote Structure | **Nucleoid Region**-Non-membrane | | | bounded region in a prokaryotic | | | cell where DNA is concentrated | | | | | | **Ribosomes**-Produces proteins | | | (These are NOT membrane) | | | R**ibosomes are subcellular | | | structures that ALL cells | | | have---prokaryotes and | | | eukaryotes**) | | | | | | **Capsule**-Sticky layer of | | | sugars or proteins that surrounds | | | the cell wall, protecting the | | | cell and enabling it to adhere to | | | various surfaces. | | | | | | **Cell Membrane**-Thin, flexible | | | protective barrier that covers | | | the cell's surface and acts as a | | | barrier; determines what goes in | | | and out of the cell. **All cells | | | have a cell | | | membrane---prokaryotes and | | | eukaryotes** | | | | | | **Cell Wall**-Rigid structure | | | outside of the cell membrane that | | | give the prokaryote protection | | | from pressure. Almost all | | | prokaryotes have cell walls. | | | | | | **Flagellum**-Motility structure | | | | | | **Plasmid**-Extrachromosomal DNA; | | | carries accessory genes | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Endosymbiont Theory | The **endosymbiont theory** is a | | | theory about where **mitochondria | | | and chloroplasts** come from. The | | | theory is that an ancient | | | ancestor to the eukaryote | | | engulfed an oxygen-using | | | prokaryote, forming an | | | endosymbiont. Over time, | | | eukaryotic cell became dependent | | | on the endosymbiont for energy | | | conversion and the endosymbiont | | | became dependent on the eukaryote | | | for nutrients and protection. | | | | | | Evidence: Mitochondria and | | | chloroplasts are both double | | | membrane bound, they both have | | | their own DNA and ribosomes and | | | they can both divide | | | independently from the nucleus. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Definitions** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Organelle | Any membrane enclosed structure | | | with specialized functions in the | | | cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Homeostasis | Maintenance of a stable, internal | | | environment | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Chromosome | Discrete units of DNA and the | | | associated proteins. *Eukaryotes | | | have linear chromosomes stored in | | | the nucleus. Prokaryotes have a | | | single, circular chromosome in | | | the nucleoid region.* | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Chromatin | Granular, loose form of DNA | | | present in a resting cell. | | | Individual chromosomes cannot be | | | seen (but they are present...they | | | just haven't condensed. The | | | chromatin condenses into | | | individual chromosomes during | | | cell division) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Apoptosis | Programmed cell death initiated | | | by lysosomes. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Contractile Vacuole | Some unicellular eukaryotes do | | | not have cell walls and could | | | burst due to osmosis of water | | | into the cell. Contractile | | | vacuoles pump water out of these | | | unicellular eukaryotes. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | **Macromolecules** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Molecular interactions | **Ionic Bond**-Bond formed when | | | one or more electrons are | | | transferred from one atom to | | | another. The bond is held | | | together by the attraction of a | | | positively charged cation to a | | | negatively charged anion. | | | | | | **Covalent Bond**-Bond formed | | | when atoms share a pair of | | | electrons. | | | | | | **Hydrogen Bond**-Attractions | | | between hydrogens and negative | | | charged poles of OTHER molecules. | | | Hydrogen bonds are attractions | | | between two different molecules. | | | See diagram. | | | | | | sb4859f1 | | | | | | **van der Waals | | | forces**-Temporary and random | | | attractions between nonpolar | | | molecules. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Water's polarity | Know | | | water's structure. Why is water | | | polar? How does its polarity | | | affect the properties of water? | | | | | | The polarity of water makes it | | | form **hydrogen bonds** with | | | other water molecules. These | | | hydrogen bonds give water the | | | following characteristics: | | | | | | - **Cohesion**: The attraction | | | between molecules of the | | | [same] substance. | | | Contributes to the high | | | surface tension of water. | | | | | | - **Adhesion:** The attraction | | | between molecules of | | | [different] | | | substances. Contributes to | | | the formation of a meniscus | | | in a graduated cylinder. | | | | | | - **High heat capacity**: Water | | | can absorb a lot of heat | | | without increasing in | | | temperature. Allows water to | | | have an insulating effect on | | | earth. | | | | | | - **High heat of | | | vaporization:** Water can | | | absorb a lot of heat before | | | changing into a gaseous | | | state. Allows sweat to cool | | | us down. | | | | | | - **Solid water is less dense | | | than liquid water**. This | | | allows ice to float and keeps | | | lakes and oceans from | | | becoming permanently frozen. | | | | | | - **Water is an excellent | | | solvent.** It likes to | | | interact with any charged or | | | partially charged molecules. | | | Can dissolve polar covalent | | | compounds and ionic | | | compounds. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Characteristics of carbon | Has four valence electrons and | | | can form up to 4 covalent bonds. | | | | | | Can bond to other carbons, making | | | backbones for organic molecules | | | with infinite combinations. | | | Carbon chains can vary in length, | | | be branched or unbranched, have | | | double bonds between carbons, and | | | form rings | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Know the 4 classes of organic | **Carbohydrates**-Sugars or | | macromolecules, their monomers, | polymers of sugars. | | and their functions | | | | Elements: C, H, and O in a 1:2:1 | | | ratio | | | | | | Monomer: Monosaccharide (Simple | | | sugar) | | | | | | Polymer: Polysaccharide (Complex | | | sugar) | | | | | | Functions: | | | | | | - Short term energy storage | | | | | | - Examples: **glucose** | | | (monomer in both plants | | | and animals), | | | **glycogen** (polymer in | | | animals) and **starch** | | | (polymer in plants) | | | | | | - Structure | | | | | | - Examples: **Chitin** | | | (polymer in some animals | | | and fungi) and | | | **cellulose** (polymer in | | | plants) | | | | | | **Proteins**-Polymers of amino | | | acids | | | | | | Elements: C, H, O, N and S | | | | | | Monomer: Amino acids | | | | | | Functions: Numerous functions, | | | including enzymes, transport, | | | defense, communication, | | | structure, movement, etc. | | | | | | **Nucleic Acids**-Polymers of | | | nucleotides | | | | | | Elements: C, H, O, N and P | | | | | | Monomer: Nucleotides | | | | | | Polymers: Either RNA or DNA | | | | | | Functions: Stores and transmits | | | hereditary information and | | | carries the instructions for | | | making proteins. | | | | | | **Lipids**-[Non-polar, | | | hydrophobic] | | | macromolecules | | | | | | Elements: mostly C and H | | | | | | Monomer: No true monomer | | | | | | Types and functions: | | | | | | - **Fats and Oils**: Long term | | | energy storage (lipids can | | | store more energy in a | | | smaller amount of space than | | | carbohydrates) | | | | | | - **Phospholipids:** Structure. | | | Phospholipids are the major | | | components of cell membranes. | | | | | | - **Steroids:** Mediate | | | physiological reactions. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Two types of nucleic acids | Deoxyribonucleic acid | | | (DNA)-Hereditary material for the | | | cell | | | | | | Ribonucleic acid (RNA)-involved | | | in protein production | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Amino acid structure | 2-16 | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Protein folding | **Primary structure**: The amino | | | acid sequence of a protein. Made | | | up of covalent bonds called | | | peptide bonds. | | | | | | **Secondary structure**: Hydrogen | | | bonds in the backbone of a | | | protein. Does not involve the R | | | groups of the amino acids. Can be | | | an α helix or a β pleated sheet | | | | | | **Tertiary structure**: Covalent, | | | ionic, or hydrogen bonds between | | | the R groups of different amino | | | acids. Gives a protein its | | | overall shape. | | | | | | **Quaternary structure**: If a | | | protein requires more than one | | | chain to be functional, | | | quaternary structure is how the | | | multiple chains fit together. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Enzyme function | Enzymes speed up reactions by | | | **lowering the activation energy | | | of a reaction**. All biological | | | reactions require an input of | | | energy to start the reaction. | | | Enzymes lower that amount of | | | energy, allowing the reaction to | | | go more quickly. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Definitions** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Organic Chemistry | Chemistry involving carbon | | | chains. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Monomer | Small subunits that when linked | | | together from a polymer. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Polymer | Large molecules made up of small | | | monomers linked together. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Dehydration reaction | Chemical reaction that joins | | | monomers to form a polymer. Also | | | known as a condensation reaction. | | | Forms polymers. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Hydrolysis reaction | Chemical reaction that breaks | | | monomers from polymers. Breaks | | | apart polymers. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Monosaccharide | Monomer of a **carbohydrate.** | | | **Glucose** is a monosaccharide. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Polysaccharide | Polymer of a **carbohydrate**. | | | **Glycogen, starch, chitin and | | | cellulose** are polysaccharides. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Amino Acid | Monomer of a **protein**. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Nucleotide | Monomer of a **nucleic acid**. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Carbohydrates | Know the function of the | | | following carbohydrates: | | | | | | **Starch**: Energy storage | | | polysaccharide in plants | | | | | | **Glycogen**: Energy storage | | | polysaccharide in animals | | | | | | **Cellulose**: Structural | | | polysaccharide in plants (part of | | | their cell wall) | | | | | | **Chitin**: Structural | | | polysaccharide in some animals | | | and fungi | | | | | | **Glucose**: Energy storage | | | monosaccharide for plants and | | | animals | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Lipids | Know the function **and** general | | | structure of the following | | | classes of lipids: | | | | | | **Fats** | | | | | | Structure: Glycerol and three | | | fatty acid chains | | | | | | Function: Long term energy | | | storage | | | | | | **Phospholipid** | | | | | | Structure: Glycerol, two fatty | | | acid chains and a phosphate group | | | | | | Function: Structure. Most | | | prevalent component of a | | | membrane. | | | | | | **Steroid** | | | | | | Structure: Four ring structure | | | | | | Function: Mediates physiological | | | reactions | | | | | | **ALL THREE OF THESE LIPIDS HAVE | | | ONLY THIS IN COMMON: THEY ARE ALL | | | HYDROPHOBIC** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Saturation | Know the structure of a saturated | | | fat and an unsaturated fat. Know | | | why their structures are | | | different. | | | | | | **Saturated**: When fatty acid | | | chains do NOT have any double | | | bonds between carbons. | | | | | |  | | | | | | **Unsaturated**: When there is at | | | least one double bond between | | | carbons in a fatty acid chain | | | | | | external image fat\_f2.jpg | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Denaturation | Know definition and what can | | | cause a protein to denature. | | | | | | Denaturation is the **unfolding | | | of a protein**. It is caused by | | | **changes in temperature, pH or | | | salt concentration.** When a | | | protein unfolds, it cannot | | | perform its function. | +===================================+===================================+ | Activation energy | The energy required to start a | | | biological reaction. It is | | | lowered but NOT eliminated by the | | | presence of an enzyme. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Active site | Where the substrates (reactants) | | | bind to an enzyme. The shape of | | | the active site is critical to an | | | enzyme's function. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Enzyme | A biological catalyst that speeds | | | up reactions by lowering the | | | activation energy required for | | | the reaction to occur. Enzymes | | | are always proteins. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Catalyst | A substance that lowers the | | | activation energy for a reaction | | | to occur. **Enzymes are | | | biological catalysts.** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Substrate | Reactants for enzymes. They bind | | | in the active site of the enzyme, | | | where the reaction occurs. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | **Cell Transport** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Lipid bilayer | The organization of phospholipids | | | in a membrane, with the | | | hydrophilic phosphate group head | | | facing outward and the | | | hydrophobic lipid tail facing | | | inward. | | | | | |  | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Fluid mosaic model | Describes the structure of cell | | | membranes. Cell membranes are | | | made of many different types of | | | molecules (phospholipids, | | | proteins, glycoproteins, | | | glycolipids and cholesterol). | | | Unless they are anchored, they | | | are free to move around in the | | | cell membrane. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Passive Transport | Definition: Transport of material | | | that does NOT require energy. | | | Always moves material with the | | | concentration gradient, from a | | | greater concentration to a lesser | | | concentration. | | | | | | **Diffusion**: Movement of | | | particles from a greater | | | concentration to a lesser | | | concentration until they are | | | equal. SMALL, NONPOLAR MOLECULES | | | can diffuse directly across the | | | cell membrane when they are | | | moving WITH the concentration | | | gradient. | | | | | | **Facilitated diffusion**: | | | Diffusion of molecules through | | | protein channels. SMALL, POLAR | | | MOLECULES need protein channels | | | to travel across the cell | | | membrane when they are moving | | | WITH the concentration gradient | | | because the cell membrane is | | | non-polar and does not like to | | | interact with polar molecules. | | | | | | **Osmosis:** Diffusion of water | | | through a semipermeable membrane. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Active Transport | Definition: Transport of material | | | requiring the use of energy. | | | Moves materials against the | | | concentration gradient, from a | | | lower concentration to a higher | | | concentration. | | | | | | **Ion Pumps**: Protein channels | | | that move ions (charged | | | particles) against the | | | concentration gradient. Requires | | | energy. | | | | | | **Endocytosis:** How cells bring | | | large molecules (such as | | | proteins) into a cell. The cell | | | engulfs the material and brings | | | it inside the cell in a | | | *[vesicle]*. Requires | | | energy because it moves large | | | amounts of cytoplasm and cell | | | membrane. Two types: | | | **Phagocytosis** (engulfing | | | really large material or cells) | | | and **pinocytosis** (engulfing | | | smaller but still large enough | | | not to be able to move through | | | the membrane) | | | | | | **Exocytosis**: How cells release | | | large molecules (such as | | | proteins) out of a cell. | | | *[Vesicles]* fuse | | | with the cell membrane, expelling | | | the material from the cell. | | | Requires energy because it moves | | | large amounts of cytoplasm and | | | cell membrane. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Concentration gradient | Going from higher concentration | | | to lower concentration- Going | | | down the concentration gradient. | | | Going against is going low to | | | high. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Dynamic Equilibrium | When concentration of particles | | | is equal on both sides of the | | | membrane, but particles continue | | | to move but there is no net | | | change in concentration. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Most likely transport for the | **Large molecules** (example: | | following molecules | proteins) | | | | | | Into the cell: Endocytosis | | | | | | Out of the cell: Exocytosis | | | | | | **Polar molecules** (example: | | | glucose or ions) | | | | | | With the concentration gradient: | | | Facilitated diffusion | | | | | | Against the concentration | | | gradient: Active transport | | | | | | **Small, nonpolar molecules** | | | (example: O~2~) | | | | | | With the concentration gradient: | | | Simple diffusion directly through | | | the membrane | | | | | | Against the concentration | | | gradient: Active transport | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Selectively permeable membrane | A membrane that allows for the | | | transport of some materials but | | | not others. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | How do cells respond to being in | **Hypertonic:** | | different types of solutions? | | | | When placed in hypertonic | | | solutions, plant and animal cells | | | shrivel. | | | | | | **Isotonic:** | | | | | | When placed in an isotonic | | | solution, animal cells and plant | | | cells behave normally. | | | | | |  | | | | | | **Hypotonic:** | | | | | | When placed in a hypotonic | | | solution, animal cells swell and | | | may burst. | | | | | | When placed in a hypotonic | | | solution, plant cells are | | | protected by their cell walls. | +===================================+===================================+ | Role of vesicles in cell | Vesicles are used in both | | transport | endocytosis and exocytosis. In | | | endocytosis, engulfed material is | | | brought into the cell in | | | vesicles. In exocytosis, vesicles | | | fuse to the cell membrane to | | | expel material out of the cell. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Definitions** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Hypotonic | When comparing two solutions, | | | hypotonic solutions are the | | | solutions with the **lower** | | | amount of solute (hypotonic | | | solutions are more dilute) | | | | | |  | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Isotonic | When comparing two solutions, | | | isotonic solutions have **equal** | | | concentrations of solute. | | | | | | http://www.ric.edu/faculty/jmontv | | | ilo/109graphics/isotonic.gif | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Hypertonic | When comparing two solutions, | | | hypertonic solutions are the | | | solutions with the **higher** | | | amount of solute (hypertonic | | | solutions are more concentrated) | | | | | |  | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Osmotic pressure | During osmosis, water will always | | | move to the side of the membrane | | | that is hypertonic (contains more | | | solute). This puts pressure on | | | that side of the membrane. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | **Cellular Energy** | +===================================+===================================+ | ATP | Structure: | | | | | | http://www.nature.com/scitable/co | | | ntent/ne0000/ne0000/ne0000/ne0000 | | | /14747828/U1CP3-4\_ATPstructure\_ | | | revised.jpg | | | | | | Function: Energy storage molecule | | | that the cell can directly use to | | | power cellular functions. Bond | | | that breaks to release energy is | | | between the outer most phosphates | | | in dotted red. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Glucose | Formula: C~6~H~12~O~6~ | | | | | | Function: Short term energy | | | storage monosaccharide. But the | | | cell cannot use it directly to | | | power cell functions. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ATP Cycle |  | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Electron Carriers | Know types and what they do | | | | | | **NADH**-Carries two high energy | | | electrons in cellular | | | respiration. Drops off the | | | electrons at the electron | | | transport chain. | | | | | | **FADH~2~**- Carries two high | | | energy electrons in cellular | | | respiration. Drops off the | | | electrons at the electron | | | transport chain. | | | | | | **NADPH**- Carries two high | | | energy electrons in | | | photosynthesis. Drops off the | | | electrons in the Calvin cycle | | | (light independent reactions). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Definitions** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Metabolism | The totality of all chemical | | | reactions in the cell. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Catabolism | Cellular reactions that break | | | large molecules into smaller | | | molecules. | | | | | | Releases energy. | | | | | | Cellular respiration is an | | | example of catabolism. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Anabolism | Cellular reactions that combines | | | smaller molecules to make larger | | | molecules. | | | | | | Requires an input of energy. | | | | | | Photosynthesis is an example of | | | anabolism. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | **Cellular Respiration** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Definition | **Cellular Respiration: The | | | process by which cells break down | | | glucose and other food molecules | | | in the presence of oxygen that | | | releases energy.** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Stages, their locations and their | 1\. Glycolysis-occurs in the | | need for oxygen | cytoplasm and is anaerobic | | | (does NOT require oxygen) | | | | | | 2\. Citric acid cycle (aka Krebs | | | cycle)-occurs in the | | | mitochondrial matrix and is | | | aerobic (requires oxygen) | | | | | | 3\. Electron transport | | | chain-occurs in the | | | mitochondrial inner membrane | | | and is aerobic (requires | | | oxygen) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Equation | C~6~H~12~O~6~ + 6O~2~ 6CO~2~ + | | | 6H~2~O + ATP + heat | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Know the reactions of cellular | **Glycolysis** breaks down | | respiration. | glucose and we get 2 NADH, a net | | | gain of 2 ATP and 2 pyruvate (or | | | pyruvic acid) | | | | | | **Makes 2 ATP** | | | | | | **Citric Acid Cycle** converts | | | pyruvate into CO2 and we get (per | | | glucose) 8 NADH, | | | | | | 2 FADH~2~, 6CO~2~ and 2 ATP | | | | | | **Makes 2 ATP** | | | | | | **Electron transport chain** uses | | | the energy stored in NADH and | | | FADH~2~ to ultimately make a lot | | | of ATP. Final electron acceptor | | | is oxygen. | | | | | | **Makes approximately 32 ATP** | | | | | | **Active transport in the ETC**: | | | ion pumps pushing H^+^ ions | | | against the concentration | | | gradient from the matrix to the | | | intermembrane space. The energy | | | for these pumps comes from the | | | electrons dropped off by NADH and | | | FADH~2~. | | | | | | **Passive transport in the ETC:** | | | Facilitated diffusion: H^+^ ions | | | diffuse through ATP synthase back | | | into the matrix. As they diffuse, | | | ATP synthase spins and makes ATP. | | | | | | **Fermentation recycles NAD^+^ | | | from NADH when there is no | | | oxygen.** | | | | | | **Lactic acid fermentation is | | | done by muscle cells and produces | | | lactic acid as waste. Alcoholic | | | fermentation is done by yeast and | | | produces ethanol and CO~2~ as | | | waste.** | | | | | | Under aerobic conditions, | | | **cellular respiration produces | | | 36 ATP per glucose**. | | | | | | Under anaerobic conditions, | | | **fermentation produces 2 ATP per | | | glucose**. | | | | | | [Cellular respiration produces 18 | | | times more ATP than | | | fermentation]. | | | | | | **Draw and label the | | | mitochondrion structure** | | | | | | http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/b | | | b451/winter14/stryer7/CH18/figure | | | \_18\_02b.jpg | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Definitions** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Aerobic | Requires oxygen | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Anaerobic | Does not require oxygen | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Phosphorylation | The addition of a phosphate group | | | (to ADP) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Oxidative Phosphorylation | The process in the electron | | | transport chain when the | | | oxidation of NADH and FADH~2~ | | | ultimately provides the energy to | | | phosphorylate ADP. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Coenzyme A | Allows acetate to enter the | | | citric acid cycle | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | **Photosynthesis** | +===================================+===================================+ | Definition | **Photosynthesis** is a process | | | used by plants and other | | | organisms to convert light | | | energy, normally from the sun, | | | into chemical energy stored in | | | carbohydrates. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Carbon fixation | Converting gaseous carbon in | | | carbon dioxide into solid carbon | | | during photosynthesis. **This | | | occurs during the light | | | independent reactions (Calvin | | | cycle).** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Equation | CO~2~ + H~2~0 + photons | | | C~6~H~12~O~6~ + O~2~ | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Know the reactions for | Know the reactants and the | | photosynthesis | products of the light dependent | | | reactions. | | | | | | **[Light Dependent | | | Reactions:]** | | | | | | Occurs in the thylakoid membrane | | | in chloroplasts. | | | | | | Requires light energy. The | | | ultimate source of energy for all | | | life comes from light energy from | | | the sun. | | | | | | Requires H~2~0. Water is broken | | | apart by photosystem II in order | | | to supply electrons for the light | | | dependent reaction to occur. | | | | | | Produces O~2~ as a waste product | | | of breaking apart H~2~O. | | | | | | **Function: Produces ATP and | | | NADPH for the light independent | | | reactions (Calvin cycle).** | | | | | | **Active and passive transport in | | | light dependent reactions.** | | | | | | Know the reactants and products | | | of the light independent | | | reactions (Also know another name | | | for the light independent | | | reaction) | | | | | | **[Light Independent Reactions | | | (AKA Calvin Cycle)]** | | | | | | Occurs in the chloroplast stroma. | | | | | | Requires ATP and NADPH produced | | | in the light dependent reaction. | | | | | | Requires CO~2~ from the | | | atmosphere. | | | | | | **Function: Ultimately produces | | | C~6~H~12~O~6~.** | | | | | | **Carbon fixation occurs during | | | the light independent | | | reactions.** | | | | | | Draw and label chloroplast | | | structure. | | | | | |  | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Compare photosynthesis and | The reactants of cellular | | cellular respiration | respiration are the products of | | | photosynthesis and vice versa. | | | | | | They utilize different energy | | | types (Photosynthesis converts | | | light energy to chemical energy. | | | Cellular respiration converts one | | | type of chemical energy into | | | another type of chemical energy). | | | | | | Cellular respiration is | | | catabolic---it breaks down a | | | larger molecule (C~6~H~12~O~6~) | | | into smaller molecules (CO~2~). | | | | | | Photosynthesis is anabolic---it | | | makes larger molecules | | | (C~6~H~12~O~6~) from smaller | | | molecules (CO~2~) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Definitions** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Heterotroph | "other-feeders" | | | | | | - They live off organic | | | compounds produced by other | | | organisms | | | | | | - Consumers - Dependent upon | | | photoautotrophs either | | | directly or indirectly | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Autotroph | "self-feeders" | | | | | | - They sustain themselves | | | without feeding on anything | | | derived from other living | | | beings | | | | | | - Producers -- ultimate source | | | of all organic compounds for | | | non-autotrophic organisms | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Chlorophyll | Pigment in the chloroplast; found | | | in the photosystems. Absorbs | | | energy from light energy. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Photon | A packet of light energy | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Pigment | Substances that absorb visible | | | light; when pigments absorb | | | visible light, electrons in the | | | pigment molecule go to a high | | | energy state. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Thylakoid | Membrane bound compartments | | | inside of chloroplasts. The | | | thylakoid membrane is the site of | | | the light dependent reactions. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Stroma | The part of the chloroplast that | | | is outside of the thylakoids. | | | This is where the light | | | independent reactions (Calvin | | | cycle) occurs. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Photo-phosphorylation | When ADP is phosphorylated in | | | photosynthesis to produce ATP. | | | The source of the energy to | | | attach the phosphate group to ADP | | | is from light. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | **Cell cycle** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Reproduction | Sexual and asexual | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | phases | Phases of the cell cycle: G1, S, | | | G2, M | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Mitosis | 4 phases of mitosis their | | | characteristics and the result | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Meiosis | Meiosis I and meiosis II | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Regulation of the cell cycle | Checkpoints and proteins | | | | | | Cancer | | | | | | Apoptosis | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+